tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-47818836262841087572024-03-08T20:32:15.107-05:00WAPPP WireNews and updates from the Women and Public Policy Program of Harvard Kennedy School.Sara Armanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14617909827413476908noreply@blogger.comBlogger219125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-85863484455219374312023-03-09T13:41:00.002-05:002023-03-15T12:12:01.824-04:00The CEDAW Committee Gives Name to Obstetric Violence<h3 style="background-color: white; caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16pt; margin: 0in; text-align: left; text-size-adjust: auto;"><i><span style="font-family: times;"><span class="x_x_x_x_x_x_x_ContentPasted0" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;">by <a href="https://www.hks.harvard.edu/faculty/rangita-de-silva-de-alwis" target="_blank">Rangita de Silva de Alwis</a></span><span class="x_x_x_x_x_x_x_ContentPasted0" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><br /></span><span class="x_x_x_x_x_x_x_ContentPasted0" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><br /></span></span></i></h3><h3 style="background-color: white; line-height: 16pt; margin: 0in; text-align: left; text-size-adjust: auto;"><span class="x_x_x_x_x_x_x_ContentPasted0" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: times;"><i><span style="font-size: 13.3333px;">The post is dedicated to Judge Nancy Gertner of Harvard Law School (former member of the Presidential Commission on the US Supreme Court) for her pioneering work in the area of reproductive health.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></span></span></h3><p class="x_x_x_x_x_elementToProof x_x_x_x_elementToProof" style="background-color: white; caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16pt; margin: 0in; text-size-adjust: auto;"><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div>In a historic decision that has major consequences on violence against women in the health care system, at its 84th Session in February 2023, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) Committee in the Communication No. 154/2020 submitted by Spain's MDCP (under the Convention's Optional Protocol), recommended that the State party (Spain) provide effective reparation and financial compensation for the damages that MDCP suffered as a consequence of obstetric violence. </div><div><br /></div><div>Radhika Coomaraswamy, the former UN Under-Secretary-General and the first UN Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, applauded the CEDAW Committee's decision and commented: "Obstetric violence is a very important concept that captures the day-to-day hidden violence that is often directed against women. In my work as Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, I met many women who suffered from this kind of violence. I am glad that the CEDAW Committee names this violation. Hopefully, governments, multilateral agencies, and non-governmental organizations will take note."</div><div><br /></div><div>The CEDAW Committee has, in prior individual communications, decided on facts similar to those in the case of MDCP in the communications of NAE v. Spain ( 2019) and S. FM v. Spain (2018). In those decisions, the Committee has held that the State party was in violation of several rights guarantees of the CEDAW, including, Article 2 on anti-discrimination, Article 5 on anti-gender stereotypes, and Article 12 on the right to health, including reproductive health. </div><div> </div><div>The term "obstetric violence" recognizes how individual instances of obstetric abuse are part of the broader ecosystem of gender-based violence as they result in a loss of autonomy and the ability to decide freely about women's bodies and sexuality. The naming of "obstetric violence" as a way to shed light on previously unacknowledged harm is important because abuse in obstetric and gynecological care is a type of violence often left out of lawmaking on violence against women or gender-based violence. Moreover, the definition of obstetric violence as a subset of gendered violence highlights that it is also a form of structural discrimination and, therefore, needs to be addressed through systemic measures. </div><div> </div><div>The World Health Organization (WHO) has acknowledged that "[m]any women across the globe experience disrespectful, abusive or neglectful treatment during childbirth in facilities."<span style="font-size: xx-small;">[1]</span> Obstetrics violence includes, but is not limited to, violations of the rights to informed consent and bodily autonomy, which lead to both physical, psychological, and emotional ha ms. Mistreatment during childbirth may be perpetrated by health care professionals well as other professional staff during labor and delivery. The phenomenon is often complicated by the power dynamics present in many doctor-patient relationships. </div><div> </div><div>There is no definition of obstetric violence that is universally recognized in global public health discourse, and the categorization offered by the CEDAW is fluid, part of a continuum, and non-exhaustive. Although the violence includes a wide range of practices, there is obvious overlap between abusive, coercive, and disrespectful treatment. Therefore, the categorization offered by the CEDAW Committee implicitly acknowledges that many incidents women report involve multiple forms of conduct that together may rise to the level of violence. </div><div> </div><div>The discourse on obstetric violence is growing and has been featured in scholarship in the US.<span style="font-size: xx-small;">[2] </span> Most references to obstetric violence are still limited to those addressing developments outside the United States.<span style="font-size: xx-small;">[3]</span> Prompted by advocates in Latin America who have tackled the issue of mistreatment in childbirth directly and, in some jurisdictions, secured legal sanctions against such conduct, advocates around the world have begun to adopt the language of "obstetric violence" to describe and condemn these abuses. </div><div> </div><div>In Latin America, increased attention to the pervasiveness of abusive practices in obstetric care sparked strong grassroots obstetric rights movements. Argentina adopted a legal framework that granted women the right to a humanized childbirth experience in 2004. This framework introduced a human rights-based approach to childbirth meant to guarantee a more dignified and respectful experience in facility-based childbirth. In 2007, Venezuela passed a comprehensive legal framework to protect the "right of women to a life free of violence," which included specific provisions to address the abuse and disrespect of medical professionals against pregnant women. This law begins with definitions of gender-based violence and defines "obstetric violence" as the appropriation of the body and reproductive processes of women by health personnel, which is expressed as dehumanized treatment, and an abuse of medication. Moreover, it addresses the way in which obstetrics violence pathologizes childbirth, causing women's loss of autonomy and their ability to decide freely about their bodies and sexuality, negatively impacting the quality of life of women. The Venezuelan law criminalizes several types of obstetric violence, including the performance of cesarean sections and the practice of artificially accelerating labor without informed and voluntary consent. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Addressing this yet largely unnamed violence, a former CEDAW Committee Chair, Dubravka Šimonović, tells me, "In 2019, as a Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, I presented to the UN Human rights Council my thematic report a human rights-based approach to mistreatment and violence against women in reproductive health services, with a focus on childbirth and obstetric violence. I have received testimonies from many women victims that voiced the fact that violence against women in childbirth is so normalized that it is not (yet) considered violence against women." As Simonovic explains, "The main aim of my report was to frame obstetric violence as gender-based violence against women and girls and a violation of their human rights, with corresponding obligations for States to develop appropriate human rights-based laws, policies, and national women's reproductive health strategies and that they ensure the proper application of informed consent. " She argues strongly that "states should conduct an independent investigation into women's allegations of mistreatment and gender-based violence in healthcare facilities and publish the results and recommendations." In her report, Šimonović further called upon States to: "establish human rights-based accountability mechanisms to ensure redress for victims of mistreatment and violence, including financial compensation, acknowledgment of wrongdoing, formal apology, and guarantees of non-repetition."</div><div><br /></div><div> </div><div>In the final analysis, of this important decision, the CEDAW Committee articulated an understanding of obstetric violence, beginning with a detailed examination of mistreatment perpetrated by healthcare providers. This case draws on the individual narrative of MDCP to illustrate the serious consequences of health care mistreatment. After developing a nuanced view of obstetric mistreatment and its implications, the CEDAW Committee's recommendations examined the failure of law, policy, and regulation to provide meaningful prevention of obstetrics violence or recourse to remedies in light of harm. Finally, the Committee identifies several factors that create conditions that allow the mistreatment of women during childbirth to occur, including structural factors related to economic and social norms related to gender and pregnancy that shape how health care is delivered. The Committee concludes by calling upon Spain's healthcare systems to offer a shift in obstetric care culture and, ultimately, to secure remedies through the human rights framework of the CEDAW. The CEDAW Committee not only upholds the rights of the victims of obstetric violence to full reparation but also calls for the recognition and prevention of such future forms of violence. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;">[1] THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, IN THE PREVENTION AND ELIMINATION OF DISRESPECT AND ABUSE DURING FACILITY-BASED CHILDBIRTH (2015), http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/maternal_perinatal/statement-childbirth/en/ [https://perma.cc/E2UH-L7WP] advocating a plan to prevent "disrespectful, abusive, or neglectful treatment" received endorsements by over 90 organizations. </span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;">[2] See Farah Diaz-Tello, Invisible Wounds: Obstetric Violence in the United States, 24 REP OD. HEALTH MATTERS 56 (2016) </span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;">[3] See Debts of Democracy: Framing Issues and Reimagining Democracy in Twenty-First Century Argentine Social Movements, 30 H RV. UM. TS. J. 165, 201 (2017) (mentioning obstetric violence in context of Argentine dictatorship's impact on women's reproductive health); Liiri Oja & Alicia Ely Yamin, "Woman" in the European Human Rights System: How is the Reproductive Rights Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights Constructing Narratives of Women's Citizenship?, 32 CO UM. J. GENDER & L. 62, 79 (2016) (noting use of term "obstetric violence" throughout Latin America). </span></div><div><br /></div><p> </p>moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-88900232460914157212022-09-26T16:07:00.006-04:002022-09-29T11:28:52.796-04:00Why Gender-based Law Reform During a Time of Covid Must be Sustained<h2><span style="font-family: times; font-size: small;">Professor Rangita de Silva de Alwis<br /><i>Member-Elect to the expert committee on the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) for the term 2023-2026; faculty at the University of Pennsylvania Law School; Hillary Clinton Fellow at Georgetown University; Adjunct Professor of Public Policy, HKS</i><br /><span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span></h2><h2><span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: small;">Read an excerpt of Rangita's forthcoming research, to be published by Michigan Law School in <i>Michigan Technology Law Review's</i> Spring 2023 special issue on the intersection of race, technology, and the law. </span></span></h2><span><span style="font-family: times;"><a name='more'></a></span></span><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><b><i><span style="font-family: times;">Why Gender-based Law Reform During a Time of Covid Must be Sustained? </span></i></b></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">Crises, emergencies, and times of unrest have been linked to increased gender-based violence (GBV). Following the declaration of lockdown and quarantine during the COVID- 19 emergency, spawned different legal measures to address the spike in GBV. This post is part of a longer study reviewing the measures adopted by different governments in response to the public health crisis. Although part of a constellation of legal measures promulgated during COVID-19, these laws and policies are also consistent with the state’s obligations under the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Further, we argue that concrete economic measures too are important to prevent gender-based violence in a holistic way. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">In the first section, we analyze a few representative laws that were implemented to address gender-based violence during COVID. Next, we look at revisions in law that take steps to shrink the gender gap in women’s equal participation in the economy. Finally, we analyze how these new revisions are not only consistent with state accountability under the CEDAW but are also necessitated under their treaty obligations in reporting to the CEDAW Committee. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><b><i><span style="font-family: times;">Law Reform on Gender-Based Violence</span></i></b></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">Several states enacted emergency services for women survivors of gender-based violence. France enabled remote protection orders for women survivors of domestic violence through the “sexual and sexist violence reporting platform.” Specifically, this reporting mechanism allowed women to directly interact with law enforcement officials trained in gender-based/sexual violence to file claims, during lockdown.</span><sup>1</sup><span style="font-family: times;"> South Africa enabled access to courts for women survivors of violence to address, prevent and combat the spread of COVID -19 in all courts, court precincts and justice service points. Article 20(b) of the Directions issued by the Minister of Justice provides that applications for interim protection orders, against domestic violence and harassment, could still be heard during the lockdown period.</span><sup>2</sup><span style="font-family: times;">Moreover, South Africa provided other services for women survivors of violence through the development of a strategic plan. South Africa’s National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence in the midst of an increase in cases of gender-based violence during the imposition of the COVID-19 lockdown restrictions, amongst other things, broaden the access to justice for survivors of gender-based violence.<sup>3 </sup>El Salvador provided access to hotlines for women survivors of violence on April 21, 2020, through the establishment of El Centro de Atención Telefónico. A free helpline operated 24/7 and provided assistance for gender-based violence, violence against children, adolescents, the elderly, and domestic violence cases.<sup>4</sup> Lebanon too provided remote protection orders for women survivors of domestic violence through the Attorney General of the Court of Cassation’s Public Circular. The circular provides procedures for obtaining protection orders remotely and instructs public prosecutors specialized in domestic violence to take all possible measures to protect women victims and their children, including not requiring the victim to be present in the judicial police center for her testimony in case she indicates that she cannot move due to health conditions and/or allowing the specialized appeal to the General Attorney to hear the victims’ testimony via technological means, or by any other means available. Lebanon enabled access to courts for women survivors of violence through the Attorney General of the Court of Cassation’s Public Circular. In dealing with cases of domestic violence, the specialized Appeal General Attorney would listen to the victim personally, via technological means and/ or by any appropriate means. Egypt promulgated a Ministerial Decree<sup>5</sup> specifically addressing domestic violence<sup>6</sup> which provided psychological services for women survivors of violence on May 6, 2020, through the “Our Mental Health is a Priority” initiative. This initiative provided psychological assistance to women survivors of violence during the COVID-19 pandemic and raised awareness regarding the availability of psychological and social services available to families in times of crisis.<sup>7</sup></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><b><i><span style="font-family: times;">Law Reform on Women’s Economic Participation </span></i></b></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">Although unrelated to Covid, during the period of 2020-2022, several states removed barriers to equalize opportunities for women to enter the labor market and receive equal wages for equal work. Bahrain, Benin Burundi Costa Rica, Montenegro, Saudi Kingdom, and Vietnam prohibited discrimination in employment and legislated equal pay for equal work.<sup>8</sup> Bahrain, Saudi Kingdom, Vietnam, and Cost Rica repealed the prohibition against night work and in jobs that were previously closed to women.<sup>9</sup> Vietnam, The Marshall Islands prohibited discrimination in access to credit and both Marshall Islands and Montenegro allowed for equal opportunity to register a business.<sup>10</sup> In the Sindh Region, Pakistan the ban on women's nighttime employment was repealed however, the restrictions on registering women-owned business remains.<sup>11</sup> During this period, Senegal prohibits discrimination based on gender when calculating health insurance premiums.<sup>12</sup> The UAE made some comprehensive reforms, including equal pay for equal work but also recognized women as heads of household and allowed equal rights for a woman to choose her place of residence. Moreover, the UAE Centra bank prohibited gender discrimination in access to credit.<sup>13</sup> In Gabon too similar measures were taken to equalize both employment opportunities for women and to provide equal access to economic opportunities.<sup>14</sup> Women may choose their place of residence, are recognized as heads of household, have equal access to credit and can open a bank account in their name, and have equal administrative authority over marital assets, including ownership of property. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><i><b><span style="font-family: times;">Accountability Under CEDAW’s Article 2 on the Elimination of Gender Discrimination</span></b></i></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">General Recommendation 19 of the CEDAW in Paragraph 23 enumerates that “Lack of economic independence forces many women to stay in violent relationships. Further, it points out that “The abrogation of their family responsibilities by men can be a form of violence, and coercion.” In light of these comments, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women recommends: (a) States parties should take appropriate and effective measures to overcome all forms of gender-based violence, whether by public or private act; (b) States parties should ensure that laws against family violence and abuse, rape, sexual assault, and other gender-based violence give adequate protection to all women, and respect their integrity and dignity.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">C<b><i>EDAW’s Article 2(a) calls for laws on the elimination of gender discrimination.</i></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">Articles 2(b) and (c) overlap in a number of respects. 2(b) requires that a state adopts a range of measures prohibiting discrimination against women. In the treaty-specific guidelines, the CEDAW Committee requests information on any remaining or emerging obstacles to the exercise and enjoyment by women of their human rights and fundamental freedoms....as well as information on measures envisaged to overcome those obstacles." The Committee sees Article 2(b) as well as Article 2(c) as the source of the State party's obligations to ensure the availability of remedies for women subject to discrimination. Article 2(f) requires states to modify or abolish discriminatory laws regulations, and practices. Further, in In General Recommendation 28, para 32, the Committee states that the obligation for remedies means that states must provide reparation to women whose rights are violated. Reparation includes reparation such as monetary compensation, restitution, rehabilitation, and reinstatement. General Recommendation 28 requires the availability of appropriate remedies, including financial penalties and punishment in case the state and non-state parties do not fulfill their obligations. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">Article 2(e) requires that States address discrimination against women by private or non-State actors. Article 2(e) imposes a due diligence obligation on States parties to prevent discrimination by private actors. 2(g) modify or repeal discriminatory penal provisions.<sup>15</sup> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p><b><i><span style="font-family: times;">Conclusion:</span></i></b></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">The legal measures adopted during COVID to increase women’s access to justice and economic equity should be seen not as episodic in nature but as part of the state’s obligations under the CEDAW. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">Article 15 of the CEDAW embodies the principle of equality before the law, which is to be interpreted broadly, meaning equal access to courts and to take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs, and practices that constitute discrimination against women. This also includes that legal services must be accessible to women to claim their rights.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">In 2015, the CEDAW adopted General Recommendation 15 which outlined six interrelated and essential components — justiciability, availability, accessibility, good quality, accountability of justice systems, and the provision of remedies for victims — as important cornerstones to ensure access to justice. Moreover, the General Recommendation emphasized that accessibility requires that all justice systems, both formal and quasi-judicial systems, are secure, affordable, and physically accessible to women, and are adapted and appropriate to the needs of women including those who face intersectional or compounded forms of discrimination. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;">In the final analysis, we argue that while these COVID-related reforms help to broaden access to justice for women during a time of crisis, these measures must be sustained as part of a way to address the structural inequalities women face in access to justice as guaranteed in the CEDAW.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"></p><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: times;">Loi No.2010-769; Code Pénal, Arts. 132-80, 222-8(4° ter) et 222-24(11°) – Law specifically addressing domestic violence (2022); (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(2020) (WBL2021_COVID19Data_22Feb2021).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(2020) (WBL2021_COVID19Data_22Feb2021).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">Ley Contra la Violencia Intrafamiliar; Ley Especial Integral para una Vida Libre de Violencia para las Mujeres, Art. 8(k) (2020); (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">Ministerial Decree No.827/2021, Art. 1 (2022)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(2020) (WBL2021_COVID19Data_22Feb2021)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">Loi No. 2003-14 du 4 juin 2004 relative aux Mutuelles de santé, Art. 8 (Nondiscrimination in access to health care)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">(WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset)</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">Code du Travail, Art. 8 (2022) (prohibiting discrimination) (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset) </span></li></ol><span style="font-family: times;">Code Civil, Arts. 114 nouveau et 254 nouveau (women may choose where to live in the same way as men) (2022) (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset) <br />Code Civil, Art. 253 nouveau (women can be head of the household in the same was as men) (2022) (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset) <br />Code Pénal 2021, Arts. 291-3 et 291-4 (prohibiting discrimination in access to credit based on gender) (2022) Id <br />Code Civil, Arts. 257 nouveau et 262 nouveau (women can open a bank account in the same way as men) (2022) Id <br />Code Civil, Arts. 335 nouveau et 336 nouveau (men and women have equal ownership rights to immovable property) (2022) Id <br />Code Civil, Art. 335 nouveau (law grants spouses equal administrative authority over assets during marriage) (2022) Id <br />(WBL2021_COVID19Data_22Feb2021). Federal Decree Law No.6 of 2020, Art. 1 (equal renumeration for work of equal value) (2021) (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset) <br />Personal Status Law No.28/2005, as amended by Federal Decree No.5/2020, Art. 71 (a woman may choose where to live in the same way as a man) (2021) (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset) <br />Decree-Law No.9 of 2019 on Social Security (women can be head of the household in the same way as men) (2020) (WBL 2022 DATA WBL1971-2022 Dataset) <br />Central Bank of the UAE Notice No.CBUAE/BSD2019/3457 (prohibiting discrimination in access to credit based on gender) (2020) Id<br /></span><p></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: times;"></span></p><div><br /></div>moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-81096553514888572982021-06-07T16:14:00.007-04:002021-06-07T16:16:57.859-04:00From “Becoming Gentlemen” to Becoming Norm Entrepreneurs: Some Perspectives on Inclusion and Allyship from Penn Law School<h2 style="background-color: white; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; color: #444444; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px -15px; padding: 0.6em 15px 0.5em; position: relative;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>Professor Rangita de Silva de Alwis<br /></b></span><i>University of Pennsylvania Law School and Hillary Clinton Fellow at Georgetown University</i></h2><p>In the early years of the 1990s, Lani Guinier and her co-authors in “On Becoming Gentlemen: Women’s Experiences at One Ivy League Law School” chronicle a law school experience stratified by gender. Based on survey and focus group data, the authors argue that women at our law school, the University of Pennsylvania Law School, 30 years ago were significantly more likely to experience both discomforts with their class performance and alienation from the learning environment. Two of the hypotheses put forward to examine the causal links between academic performance and classroom experience and overall law school performance and mentorship. </p><p>Thirty years later, in the fall of 2020, the class on Women, Law and leadership Class became an incubator to explore these hypotheses through a set of interviews and collection of qualitative data. We hypothesized that women students' experience in our class would be different from their predecessors studied in “Becoming Gentlemen” by Guinier and her co-authors. Based on the over 100 interviews of male allies at Penn Law, we claim that this change is mainly due to the transformation in the attitudes of the male peers in the classroom and the conduct of male leaders in the workplace.</p><p>The 100 plus male students who were interviewed supported their female peers and the values of gender equality in general. The changes in male attitudes were key to altering the learning and working environments. While Guinier and co-authors showcased how women were becoming “bi-cultural” and adopting male tendencies to succeed, we noted that men rather than the women were becoming “bi-cultural.” Men were now more likely to embrace gender-sensitive attitudes and more systemic and structural change on caregiving and workplace organizational behavior. Most of our respondents found it important to amplify women’s voices, not only because it was the right thing to do but because these diverse voices enriched their own insights on law and life. </p><p>The male ally interviews were combined with mini-surveys on how women in the class experience bias. These mini-surveys were two-pronged: The first survey included fifty women: women in the class on Women, Law, and Leadership, and the women students in the Policy Lab on Sexual Harassment. The second survey included Black women in the class and their peers from outside the class. </p><p>The initial impulse for these surveys grew out of our in-class study of Deborah Rhode’s extensive work on the experiences of women in the legal profession, David Wilkins’s corpus of scholarship on diversity in the legal profession, Kenneth Mack’s work on Sadie T.M. Alexander and the history of Black women in the legal profession, Martha Minow’s scholarship on inclusion, and Vicki Schultz on her examination of implicit bias and women’s experiences in the workplace. We also immersed ourselves in the intersectionality work of Kimberly Crenshaw. We also read text on stereotype threat, such as Claude Steele’s “Whistling Vivaldi and Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us” and discussed modern-day variations of bias, including Isabel Wilkerson’s “Caste: The Origins of Our Discontent.” </p><p>Growing out of class discussions of the “Thousand Papercuts” in Vicki Schultz’s retelling of the biases that women in Silicon Valley face, students suggested mini-surveys of what would constitute modern-day papercuts—those daily indignities and exclusions that women face that in isolation may not be problematic, but in the aggregate could cause damage. </p><p>Although our qualitative data shows that attitudes among male students at Penn Law have changed dramatically, how women internalize stereotypes and the threat that these unexamined assumptions pose remain real and have changed little over the thirty years. </p><p>It is clear that women then as now internalize stereotypes to their detriment. In “Becoming Gentlemen,” a female student stated 30 years ago: “After I discovered I was being called a feminized dyke, I never spoke in class again.” In 2020, the vernacular may have changed, but harmful stereotypes still lurk in the shadows, and women tend to self-censure based on the fear of those tropes of the Janus- faced “aggressive” and “meek” female. However, what differentiates the current women and men of Penn Law from their predecessors 30 years ago is that they are no longer silent about gender and intersectional stratification issues. </p><p>Our data show that subtle biases and stereotypes remain pervasive and might be masked by social protocols that normalize such behavioral attitudes. However, men and women are aware of these invisible barriers to success and are no longer passive bystanders to a parade of caste protocols. In the final analysis, there is a marked shift from Penn Law women “becoming gentlemen” to both Penn Law women and men “becoming norm entrepreneurs” who are interested in changing social norms. </p><p><b>Survey of Gender Bias in Elite Law Firms in China </b></p><p>Through a survey of close to 450 emerging women leaders in the law, interviews with male allies and female partners at major law firms in China, four Chinese lawyers who are LLM students at the University of Pennsylvania Law School identified some key barriers to women's leadership and the role of male allyship. In this groundbreaking study, the students used a mixed-methods approach to gather qualitative and quantitative data about the gendered factors affecting women lawyers in selected elite law firms in China. </p><p>One part of this study surveyed nearly 450 young lawyers aged 25- 30 in elite law firms on their experience of bias and attitudes. What was significant was their attitude toward pregnancy. Given the age group, only 7.92 percent of the women had children, but 100 percent of this cohort agreed that having a child had a negative impact on their career. Both the quantitative and qualitative data showed a fear of the “motherhood burden” and young women lawyers' fears of the negative impact of motherhood on a career in elite law firms. </p><p> "Once female lawyers take parental leave, their clients would be grabbed by other lawyers. To endure fairness, I think the only solution is to have mandatory parental leave on both female and male lawyers . . . I am still single, but I am so worried." </p><p>Another lawyer stated: "I feel sad that there exists no discussion about gender bias in the legal industry in China." This is an important finding. As Joan Williams says in the ABA Commission on Women in the Profession report on "Interrupting Racial and Gender Bias in the Legal Profession, "You cannot change what you cannot see." Seeing then is the first step. As our researchers point out, “It is important that we be trained to "see" gender bias lest it becomes invisible and ignored.”</p><p><b>Black Women Future Leaders</b></p><p>The Report on “Black Women Future Leaders” analyzes the results of a survey of BLSA students and finds that the threat of stereotypes acts as a silencing tool. Even when students may not have had a personal experience of being labeled, they adjust their behavior and speech patterns to avoid those labels. </p><p>As Isabel Wikerson writes in “Caste: The Origins of Our Discontent:”</p><p>“Caste is more than rank; it is a state of mind that holds everyone captive, the dominant imprisoned in an illusion of their own entitlement, the subordinate trapped in the purgatory of someone else's definition of who they are and who they should be." </p><p>The reports that grew out of our class discussion examine the insidious and often invisible undercurrents of bias that confine women, especially minority women, in a way that deprives all of us of the use of a basic human trait, the power of our imagination to see outside of a narrowly imagined sense of the world.</p><p>On that note of the power of imagination, the speakers in our class shared their art as a powerful tool to open up difficult conversations and share stories. David Hornik shared with us his extensive art collection by Black and Asian artists. He also shared with us Edward McClunny’s print of Thurgood Marshall. We include it in our report. </p><p>New York Public Library General Counsel Michele Mayes, an avid art collector, showed the class a mixed-media piece by Charly Palmer depiction of Martin Luther King Jr. standing in line to vote with one of his daughters.</p><p>Lawyer and art entrepreneur Shalini Ganendra discussed curating practices in light of racial injustice. As a Fellow at Oxford, she discussed her work on the influence of colonization on art and art critique.</p><p>The art depicted in the covers of our reports and the reports themselves are an invitation to engage in conversation about these modern-day biases that are hard to address. As Wilkerson says: “Modern-day caste protocols are less often about overt attacks or conscious hostility… They are like the wind, powerful enough to knock you down but invisible as they go about their work.” </p><div>Read the full report <a href="https://wappp.hks.harvard.edu/files/wappp/files/wll_report_part_1_final_january_41.pdf" target="_blank">here</a>. </div>moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-11259730095737979892021-02-24T16:39:00.003-05:002021-02-24T16:41:02.592-05:00Why CEDAW Helps Strengthen the US's Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) <h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>Ambassador Melanne Verveer<br /></b></span><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>Executive Director of the Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security</i></span><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b><br /></b></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>Professor Rangita de Silva de Alwis<br /></b></span><i><span style="font-family: inherit;">University of Pennsylvania Law School and Hillary Clinton Fellow at Georgetown University</span></i><i><br /></i><i><br /></i></h2><h2 style="text-align: left;"><i>Rangita thanks Dean Theodore Ruger of Penn Law for his support.</i></h2><div><i><br /></i></div><div><div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA), introduced by then-Sen. Biden, was first signed into law in 1994 to address domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking through legislation. Since the passage of VAWA, intimate partner violence declined by 64% from 1994 to 2010, according to the U.S. Department of Justice’s Bureau of Justice Statistics. In more recent years, as the law’s support has been uncertain, there has been a 42% increase in these cases between 2016 and 2018, according to the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; white-space: pre;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">VAWA has been updated and reauthorized three times—in 2000, 2005, and 2015. Updates over the years have had bipartisan backing and have included new programs to protect elderly and disabled women, mandatory funds for rape prevention and education, new protections for victims of trafficking, undocumented immigrants, and Native American women, and expanded language to be inclusive to the LGBTQ community. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; white-space: pre;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">The CEDAW is the natural extension of this crucial domestic project, bringing the goals of VAWA to the international stage. VAWA’s values are similar to General Recommendation 19 of the CEDAW, which was promulgated by the CEDAW Committee in 1992. General Recommendation 19 deals specifically with gender-based violence and clarifies the definition of gender-based violence and how it is integrated into other articles of the CEDAW even when not expressly in the provision. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; white-space: pre;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic has made a global effort to end violence against women more necessary than ever. The COVID-19 pandemic has potentially rolled back many of the human rights gains of the past decades. One of the dramatic effects of the pandemic has been an international rise in domestic violence.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; white-space: pre;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">In the United States, the National Domestic Violence Hotline reported a 9% increase in calls between March 16—when many states issued lockdown orders—and May 16. There was a 10% increase in domestic violence reports in the same month to the New York City Police Department compared to March 2019. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; white-space: pre;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">The United Nations also reports that the lockdowns lead to increased violence against women, especially domestic violence across the globe. The UN has labeled the rise of violence against women and girls during the COVID-19 outbreak “the shadow pandemic,” referring to the fact that another pandemic affecting the security of women was growing in the shadow of the COVID-19 pandemic.<span><sup>1</sup></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; white-space: pre;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">Meanwhile, Ambassadors from 124 UN Member States and Observers have answered the Secretary-General’s recent call to address the surge in domestic violence in the pandemic. These countries have committed to making prevention and redress of gender-based violence a key part of their national response plans. “More than ever, there needs to be zero tolerance for domestic violence,” they wrote in a letter to the UN Chief. They added that women are “not just victims” in the crisis; they also play a major role in COVID-19 response. Following reports that domestic violence in Lebanon has doubled in the last 12 months, figures seen by the <i>Thomson Reuters Foundation</i>, in December 2020, Lebanon revised its domestic violence law to guarantee custody rights of women facing violence in the family.<span><sup>2</sup></span> In many countries around the world, the national domestic violence laws are anchored in the values of the CEDAW. To pick but two countries, the Philippines and Brazil, the CEDAW provides the standard-setting principles for domestic violence laws. The Philippines law of 2004 provides: “Towards this end, the State shall exert efforts to address violence committed against women and children in keeping with the fundamental freedoms guaranteed under the Constitution and the Provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination Against Women….” Brazil’s <i>Maria de Penha Law</i> of 2006 states in its Article 1: This law creates mechanisms to restrain and prevent domestic violence against women in compliance with the CEDAW. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; white-space: pre;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">As the Biden administration and Congress work to reauthorize VAWA, they must also look to the horizon—to the ratification of CEDAW. The time for the ratification of the CEDAW is now looking to a more sustainable future and reversing the past history of gender and intersectional inequality. In T.S. Eliot’s words, “What might have been and what has been. Point to one end, which is always present.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres has said:</span></li><blockquote><div><span style="font-family: inherit;">I urge governments to put women and girls at the centre of their efforts to recover from COVID-19. That starts with women as leaders, with equal representation and decision-making power. Nearly 60 percent of women around the world work in the informal economy, earning less, saving less, and at greater risk of falling into poverty. As markets fall and businesses close, millions of women’s jobs have disappeared. At the same time as they are losing paid employment, women’s unpaid care work has increased exponentially as a result of school closures and the increased needs of older people. These currents are combining as never before to defeat women’s rights and deny women’s opportunities. </span></div></blockquote><li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Timour Azhari, Lebanon passes landmark sexual harassment law, AL JAZEERA (Dec. 21, 2020) https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/21/lebanons-parliament-approves-landmark-sexual-harassment-law.</span></li></ol></div></div></div></div>moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-51034521937309597922021-02-10T20:19:00.012-05:002021-02-10T20:34:01.240-05:00Ngozi Okonjo Iweala is the first woman to lead the World Trade Organization (WTO), making inclusion central to multilateral institutions <h2 style="text-align: left;"></h2><h2>Rangita de Silva de Alwis<br /><span style="font-weight: normal;"><i> University of Pennsylvania Law School<br /> Nonresident Leadership Fellow at WAPPP and Hillary Rodham Clinton Research Fellow on Gender Equity Georgetown University </i></span><br /><br />UN Under-Secretary-General Phumzile Mlambo Ngcuka<br /><span style="font-weight: normal;"><i> Executive Director of UN Women<br /> Nonresident Leadership Fellow at WAPPP</i></span></h2><p style="text-align: left;"><span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;">Our friend, Okonjo Iweala, is also known as “Wahala,” a popular Pidgin English word in Nigerian meaning trouble. She told us, “I loved this nickname …. To me, it was a badge of honor.” As a world-renowned development economist, author, and advocate, Okonjo Iweala has been a force for gender-equal economic development, sustainable financing, and anti-corruption. Okonjo Iweala has held some of the most distinguished positions in the government of Nigeria, the World Bank, and in global multilateral institutions. Okonjo Iweala’s impressive ability to drive change makes her one of the most influential figures on the world stage. In a time of global volatility, it is a time to take stock of how she will govern at the WTO. <br /><br />In February 2019, we conducted a two-week-long <a href="https://www.blogger.com/#">interview on redefining leadership</a> with Okonjo Iweala for our study on “Redefining Leadership in the Age of SDGs.”<br /><br />"If you find problems, you must find solutions,” she often says. When we asked her about her favorite leadership philosophy, she told us: “Investing in women is smart economics, and investing in girls, catching them upstream, is even smarter economics.” She often turns to Nelson Mandela’s leadership for guidance. Her favorite quote is from that historic day on the evening of May 2, 1994, when Mandela claimed victory in the first democratic elections in South Africa: “I am your servant, I don’t come to you as leader… Leaders come and go, but the organization and the collective leadership that has looked after the fortunes and reverses of this organization will always be there.” Okonjo Iweala feels the same about being a servant leader, a servant leader who is also not afraid to cause trouble. She is also inspired by Desmond Tutu’s definition of the Ubuntu principles. It is a difficult concept to translate into English: “A person is a person through other people.” In Xhosa ubuntu ungamntu ngabanye abantu, and in Zulu umuntu ngumuntu ngabanye means “I am human because I belong, I participate, and I share.” Recently, she sent us her favorite Igbo quote on leadership: “Aka nni kwo aka ekpe, aka ekpe akwo aka nni nwancha adi ocha”. Translated into English: "When the right hand washes the left hand, and the left hand washes the right hand, both are clean.” It speaks to helping each other, partnering, and sharing responsibility together.<br /><br />A globalist and an African to the core, she sees new opportunities where others see challenges. She sees the problem of a “single story” about any region, especially Africa. The telecom revolution has created a mini-revolution in the area. Africa is ahead with mobile money-pay for solar with cards. Another innovation is the mitigating effects of climate change on 32 countries in Africa through the African Risk Capacity—the weather-based insurance initiative that Okonjo Iweala is heading. The idea she explained to us was for Africans to look for solutions in their own region.<br /><br />Trained at Harvard and MIT as an economist, Okonjo Iweala served two terms as Finance Minister of Nigeria from 2003-2006 and 2011-2015, and as Nigeria’s Foreign Minister in 2006. She was the first woman to hold both positions. She has spent more than two decades at the World Bank as a development economist, rising to the number-two position of managing director, which she served from 2007-2011. While at the World Bank, she was responsible for an $81 billion operational portfolio, including Europe and Central Asia, South Asia, and Africa. In 2012, she and Colombia’s Jose Antonio Ocampo squared off against American physician Jim Yong Kim in The World Bank’s first-ever contested presidential election. Although she was unable to break the traditional gentleman's agreement on the World Bank leadership, Okonjo Iweala helped to challenge business as usual with her candidacy and has laid the foundation for future challenges from non-Americans, especially from developing countries.<br /><br />Okonjo Iweala was the head of the board of the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) Board. In this role, along with Larry Summers and the Ministers of Health of developing countries, she spearheaded crucial immunizations and health services to children, focusing on girls in developing countries. A pre-pandemic study in Health Affairs covering 73 GAVI-supported countries over the 2011-2020 period shows that for every US$1 spent on immunization, US$16 are saved in healthcare costs, lost wages, and lost productivity due to illness, and return on investment increases to US$ 44 when taking into account the broader benefits of people living longer and healthier lives. Also, Okonjo Iweala has used her role as chair for the Board of GAVI to introduce a new era of public-private partnerships between multilateral organizations, the private sector, civil society, developed and developing country governments.<br /><br />As a development economist with a feminist perspective, Okonjo-Iweala implemented a budgetary incentive program that would motivate ministries to implement initiatives to empower girls and women in their sector. Simultaneously, the Ministry of Agriculture had developed a new e-wallet system, which transferred subsidies directly to farmers through the financial technology, removed the government from the supply changes, and allowed farmers to directly purchase the fertilizer and pesticides they needed. Seizing the moment, Okonjo-Iweala offered the ministry a budget increase as a reward for bringing this new, innovative technology to more women. Okonjo Iweala’s leadership efforts enabled 3 million women to participate in the e-wallet program in 2014. Furthermore, as Minister of Finance, Okonjo-Iweala was able to leverage the resources at her disposal to work with other ministers such as the Minister of Agriculture to bring technological and financial resources to women in rural areas. Additional achievements with budget-incentives include the Ministry of Water Resources developing a new system for women to manage their communities’ water and sanitation centers and the Ministry of Public Works developing a new training regimen to propel women into subcontractors' positions in procurement. Within Nigeria, she helped support entrepreneurial citizens through the You WIN Program, the GWiN program (Growing Girls and Women in Nigeria), and the Development Bank of Nigeria.<br /><br />The greatest war she has fought has been against corruption. A 2002 African Union study estimated that corruption costs the continent roughly $150 billion a year. To compare, developed countries gave $22 billion in aid to sub-Saharan Africa in 2008, according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. It has been estimated that Nigeria has lost more than 600 billion to corruption since independence. This crusade has threatened her personal security. In 2012, Okonjo Iweala’s 83-year-old mother was kidnapped in retaliation for Okonjo Iweala’s leadership in anti-corruption policies and Nigerian government reform. The kidnappers demanded that Okonjo Iweala publicly resign from office. She did not, and her mother escaped. Okonjo Iweala discusses the danger of confronting deep-seated corruption in her most recent book, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/#">Fighting Corruption Is Dangerous</a> (2018). Okonjo Iweala’s vision for macroeconomic reform in Africa considers and combines African culture and history. In <a href="https://www.blogger.com/#">Reforming the Unreformable: Lessons from Nigeria</a> (2012), Okonjo Iweala presents a framework used by her and her team that stabilized the macroeconomy, increased economic growth and fiscal transparency, reduced the debt burden, strengthened the integrity of public and civil service, and redirected resources being siphoned to private interest back to the people and the poor. She also details the challenges and confronts head-on the daunting complexity of pushing for macroeconomic and development economic reform, as well as pushing back against corrupt trade, tariffs, and customs practices.<br /><br />In her most recent co-authored book with Hon. Julia Gillard, Australia's first woman head of state, Okonjo Iweala analyzes leadership lessons of women leaders from Hillary Clinton to Jacinda Arden. At a time when women are helping to steer their countries out of the pandemic, as the first woman and first African to head the WTO, Okonjo Iweala is poised to bring these critical inclusive perspectives to the complex task of a global economic recovery.<br /><br />--<br /><br /><b><i>NgoziOkonjo-Iweala is the fifth Angelopoulos Global Public Leaders Fellow at the Harvard Kennedy School and delivered the <a href="https://www.blogger.com/#">Robert S. McNamara Lecture on War and Peace</a> at Harvard in 2019.</i></b></p>moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-40205790666751712442020-11-12T16:12:00.004-05:002020-11-12T16:25:01.166-05:00HOW THE BLACK LIVES MATTER MOVEMENT IS RESHAPING OUR THINKING ON BIAS IN AI<h2 style="text-align: left;"><b style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;"><i>Rangita de Silva de Alwis, Christian Zabilowicz and Gitanjali Swamy<sup>1</sup></i></b></h2><div><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><b>Introduction</b></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px;"><br /></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">As our public reckoning on systemic racism and structural bias reaches its climax following weeks of Black Lives Matter protests around the world, we have been asking ourselves and our academic colleagues what role AI plays in all this – and what role AI ought to play in the future. In the same way that the MeToo Movement challenged our collective conscience about sexism in the workplace, we believe that Black Lives Matter and other movements that aim to address systemic discrimination in society have the potential to reshape our thinking on bias in AI.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p><p class="p4" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">Writing recently in the Atlantic, Secretary Hillary Clinton called for gender blind reviews of resumes in line with the success of gender-blind orchestra auditions. All of this calls for a fresh interrogation of the role of AI in addressing implicit bias in the workplace.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span> </p><p class="p4" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">Many before us have detailed the causes of bias in AI and in doing so have contributed hugely to the positive reforms that have followed. Yet, few have gone further than identifying and addressing the biases that exist on the surface, and fewer still have made the case for AI’s potential to provide the greatest step forward yet towards <span class="s1" style="text-decoration-line: underline;">substantive equality</span>.</p><p class="p4" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12px;">Substantive equality, as opposed to formal equality, is a fundamental concept in human rights law which requires proactive and positive measures to be taken to ensure that persons who have faced historic discrimination have a genuinely equal chance of satisfying the criteria for access to a particular social good, such as employment or education.<sup>2 </sup>Whereas formal equality models disavow policies that aim to redress imbalances on a systemic level, a substantive sense of equality envisages an inclusive and intersectional approach that takes into account discriminatory barriers in all its forms, not just those that are obvious or intended.<sup>3</sup> </span><span style="font-size: 12px;">In practice, this involves analyzing the particular experiences that a person has lived through, discerning the extent of any disadvantage they have faced, and equalizing the playing field to that same extent, as and when that person seeks to access a social good.</span></p><p class="p4" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;">As support for this substantive conception of equality grows, we argue that the time is ripe to shift our focus from reducing surface level bias in AI to find ways to utilize AI as a means of dismantling institutionalized discrimination. Using the employment context to support our<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="text-align: justify;">position, we submit that this means ending our reliance on formal equality metrics to measure the success of AI systems, to make way for one based on the principle of substantive equality. While we recognize that there are risks to manipulating AI to achieve a particular outcome or result, particularly in countries with a poor track record of public governance and adhering to the rule of law, we argue that by requiring diverse interpretations of the norms subject to manipulation, and by ensuring that the underlying process is fully transparent, such risks can be effectively mitigated.</span><span class="Apple-converted-space" style="text-align: justify;"> </span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b>The causes of bias in AI</b></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">The causes of bias in AI are well-documented but it is important to reiterate them here, for an understanding of such causes is crucial for recognizing why formal equality models fail.</p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">In general, bias is said to creep into AI systems in three ways:</p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><span class="s1" style="text-decoration-line: underline;">PROGRAMMER BIAS</span>: In its most obvious form, bias can get into AI systems through the conscious and unconscious biases of their human programmers. If, for example, a company wanted to use AI to screen resumes and identify leaders within an applicant pool, and that company either conscious or unconsciously believes masculine qualities to be demonstrative of leadership, then the AI system may become discriminatory as a result of the company’s discriminatory interpretation of what constitutes leadership.</p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><span class="s1" style="text-decoration-line: underline;">DATA BIAS</span>: Bias can also find its way into AI programs through source data. Gender, racial and other prejudices can creep into data sets because data sets are often reflective of the deep-seated prejudices in society. When an AI system uses a data set that contains these prejudices, it will reproduce them in its algorithmic outcomes.</p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><span class="s1" style="text-decoration-line: underline;">LEARNING ALGORITHM BIAS</span>: Finally, AI systems that use machine-learning tools can also be biased. Machine-learning algorithms produce outcomes that are in part based on training data and in part based on their own ‘learning’ – it is this second component that can give rise to problems, for the AI system may be capable of drawing its own bias conclusions, and these conclusions will be difficult to identify.</p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b>Addressing bias using the formal equality model</b></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">After identifying the causes of bias outlined above, most of our colleagues understandably go on to discuss the various ways that we can reduce such bias. For instance, Kimberley Houser, in relation to gender-based bias in AI, argues that we need only follow ‘responsible’ practices when developing and deploying AI to mitigate the risk of bias – she explains that ‘responsible’ practices include cleaning source data before use and employing diverse programmers.<sup>4</sup> Her view is reflective of the general academic stance on tackling bias in AI.</p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;">The problem with this approach is two-fold. First, these practices have severe limitations in and of themselves. While it is true that data sets can be balanced and more diverse slates of programmers can be employed, this, on its own, will not be enough to tackle bias to the extent <span style="text-align: justify;">that Houser suggests. Bias and discrimination are complicated phenomena that have proven to take many forms. Even if we are able to modify data sets so that they are reflective of, say, gender, this will not address the full and intersectional spectrum of bias and discrimination that women experience. For instance, Houser discusses balancing data sets by replicating the profiles of women within the data set – but how will this solve the problem if the profiles of women being replicated are of white women who have never had childcare responsibilities or never been a victim of violence; Houser’s solutions ignore the particular disadvantages attached to the circumstances a person finds themselves in. It is this complexity that suggests more is needed than formal equality.<sup>5</sup></span></p><p class="p4" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">The second issue, and the one that is of primary concern in this article, is that the approach does not go far enough; it does not redress the institutionalized bias that may exist even when the algorithmic outcome is ‘accurate’. To give an example, consider again an AI system that screens resumes and identifies leaders. <i>Prima facie</i>, the Al system may be doing exactly as the designer intends – producing consistently accurate outcomes that are reached regardless of the candidate’s gender, race, sexuality, or other protected characteristic. Indeed, at this point, many would argue that we have achieved “equality”. However, removing these barriers does not mean that minorities and women who have faced a history of discrimination will in fact be equal. As Fredman explains, “those who lack the requisite qualifications as a result of past discrimination will still be unable to meet job-related criteria.”<sup>6</sup> The formal equality model assumes that once we have equal opportunities, nothing more needs to be done. But equality of opportunity is compatible with unequal results.<sup>7</sup></p><p class="p4" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">In fact, traditional AI approaches completely miss the point that diversity is a far broader issue than mere checkboxes on a few external demographic factors. To understand what diversity truly means in the human race, we must understand the underlying notion of group <span class="s1" style="text-decoration-line: underline;">collective intelligence</span>. Collective intelligence is a term used to describe a group’s collective capacity and capability to solve diverse problems.<sup>8</sup> Human collective intelligence is created by differences in people’s perspective, heuristics, interpretations, and predictive models, and those, in turn, are shaped by not just a narrow definition of demographic but a far more inclusive view that includes all identities, experiences, and training. The human race thrives because humans as a species have understood and mastered the utilization of collective intelligence; we have acted on the insight of superior decision capability that diverse groups of average problem solvers consistently outperform homogenous groups of excellent problem solvers.<sup>9</sup> Thus, bringing diversity into human organizations is even more about creating more effective human organizations than social justice alone. Therefore, it is critical to adjust AI algorithms to remove bias, resulting in maximal collective intelligence, a key facet of human excellence that comes from greater diversity.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></p><p class="p3" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b>Addressing AI through a substantive equality lens</b></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">In view of the above, and in support of BLM and other movements to end institutionalized discrimination and victimization, we believe that AI must adhere to the substantive equality model. Targeting disadvantage rather than aiming at neutrality allows us not only to redress the historic and deep-seated legacy of bias and discrimination by leveling the playing field but emphasizes a representation-reinforcing theory of participation.<sup>10</sup> Indeed, given that past discrimination and other social mechanisms have perpetually blocked the avenues for political participation by particular minorities, representation-reinforcing equality laws are needed in AI to compensate for the muffling of political voice and to open the channels for greater participation in the future.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">But we ought to offer one word of caution. We recognize that there are risks to manipulating AI to ensure a particular outcome or result; we acknowledge that our position may open the pandora’s box for abusive governments to manipulate AI to suit their agendas. However, we argue that these risks can be mitigated if two safeguards are put in place:</p><p class="p2" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 14px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><span class="s1" style="text-decoration-line: underline;">DIVERSITY OF INTERPRETATIONS</span>: We submit that manipulation must exclusively be focused on addressing the underlying conditions causing bias. This means ensuring respect for diversity of interpretations, rather than retroactively trying to manipulate the end outcome itself. For instance, if AI is to identify leadership qualities in a resume, the algorithm should be trained to identify leadership within a context of pluralism. Leadership, in this case, should not be interpreted through the lenses of a narrow conception of masculinity, but instead look at plural definitions of leadership, including feminist and intersectional views. In other words, AI must adjust for diverse interpretations of a concept or equitable outcome.</p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;">2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><span class="s1" style="text-decoration-line: underline;">TRANSPARENCY</span>: We further submit that any manipulation should be fully transparent as well as subject to public governance. We posit that the checks and balances in a functional democracy mitigate most of the risks of foul play. This is analogous to the societal approach to ensuring the voting process in a democracy works; at no stage do we enable any manipulation of say, a government’s voting outcome or outcome based on corporate self-interest; rather, we ensure that the underlying process is fully transparent, free from bias and under public governance.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"><br /></span></p><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span></span></p><a name='more'></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><p class="p1" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"></p><span class="Apple-converted-space" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;"><br /><ol><li><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Rangita de Silva de Alwis is the Associate Dean of International Affairs at the University of Pennsylvania, Non-resident Leader in Practice at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government’s Women and Public Policy Program, and Senior Fellow at the Center on the Legal Profession, Harvard Law School. Christian Zabilowicz is a graduate of the University of Oxford and a current Thouron Scholar at the University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School. Gitanjali Swamy is the Managing Partner of IoTask and a Representative to the UN’s EQUALS Leadership Coalition. Rangita de Silva thanks David Wilkins and Martha Minow of Harvard Law School and Deborah Rhode of Stanford Law School for their insights on the issue of substantive versus formal equality.</span></div></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Sandra Fredman, </span><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Substantive Equality Revisited</i><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">, 14.3 International Journal of Constitutional Law 712, 724.<br /></span></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Id.</i><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;"> Ontario Human Rights Commission, </span><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Why are special programs protected?</i><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">, OHRC Guide to Special Programs and the Human Rights Code, </span><a href="http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/your-guide-special-programs-and-human-rights-code/why-are-special-programs-protected" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;"><span class="s1" style="color: #dca10d;">http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/your-guide-special-programs-and-human-rights-code/why-are-special-programs-protected</span></a><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;"> (last visited July 16, 2020).<br /></span></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Kimberly A. Houser, Can AI Solve the Diversity Problem in the Tech Industry? Mitigating Noise and Bias in Employment Decision-Making, 22 Stan. Tech. L. Rev. 290 (2019).</span></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Sandra Fredman, Substantive Equality Revisited, 14.3 International Journal of Constitutional Law 712, 730.</i></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Id at 723.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> <br /></span></i></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Id.</i></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">While the concept of collective intelligence has been used for over a century in sociology, political science, and even science fiction, the actual term collective intelligence itself is attributed to Professor Thomas Malone of MIT, when he set up the MIT center for collective intelligence in 2006. This is detailed in his recent AI book titled “Superminds” </i><a href="https://cci.mit.edu/superminds/" style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;"><span class="s2" style="color: #dca10d;"><i>https://cci.mit.edu/superminds/<br /></i></span></a></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">There is a much more systematic, mathematical, and computer science-based explanation for these models of collective intelligence that can be found in the work of Dr. Page and his team of collaborators from the University of Michigan. Scott E. Page, The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies, New Edition, Princeton University Press, 2008.</i></div></span></li><li><span class="Apple-converted-space"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Sandra Fredman, </span><i style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">Substantive Equality Revisited</i><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue"; font-size: 12px;">, 14.3 International Journal of Constitutional Law 712, 729.</span></div></span></li></ol></span><p></p></div></span><p></p></div><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div>moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-74512311337624949412020-09-21T18:08:00.006-04:002020-09-22T13:13:44.669-04:00 Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg: The Global and the Personal <div>Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg knew the dangers of a parochial approach to the law. When necessary, she was not afraid to rely on international and comparative law, both as a justice and as a lawyer, to make a case for equality under the law. She drew upon comparative law for her first brief filed in the Supreme Court, <i>Reed v. Reed</i>, in 1970—<span style="font-size: calc(var(--rem) * 1px * 1.0625); letter-spacing: 0px;">the first case to prohibit sex-based classification. For the brief, she extensively referenced reports to the UN on the legal status of women in Sweden as well as the UN Charter. In <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>, which challenged the University of Michigan Law School's affirmative action program, she compared the program to the UN Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women' s Temporary Special Measures in Article 4. </span><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>In a 2010 address to American University, she argued that "[t]he U.S. judicial system will be poorer . . . if we do not both share our experience with, and learn from, legal systems with values and a commitment to democracy similar to our own." Learning from others was essential to her, even when it meant breaking down the narrow orthodoxy of nationalist views. In discussing constitution reform in Egypt soon after the Arab Revolution in 2012, she urged the Egyptian lawmakers to look beyond the U.S. Constitution, referencing the South African Constitution. "... if I were drafting a constitution in the year 2012. I might look at the Constitution of South Africa," "That was a deliberate attempt to have a fundamental instrument of government that embraced basic human rights, had an independent judiciary. … It really is, I think, a great piece of work that was done. "</div><div><br /></div><div>We are deeply in debt to Justice Ginsburg's impact in changing gender equality laws in the United States. Less is known about her influence in small corners of the world, in places so small, that in Eleanor Roosevelt's words, "they cannot be seen on any maps of the world." </div><div> </div><div>--</div><div><br /></div><div><i>Rangita de Silva de Alwis, writing above, also shares with us a letter she wrote to the Justice inviting her to Penn Law in 2018 to celebrate her 25th anniversary on the Supreme Court. A letter which the Justice told her reminded her of the important role of fathers as nurturers—</i><span style="font-size: calc(var(--rem) * 1px * 1.0625); letter-spacing: 0px;"><i>a view that shaped her incomparable jurisprudence and legacy. Speaking to Joan Williams, Justice Ginsburg once said: "This is my dream for society....Fathers loving and caring for and helping to raise their kids." </i> </span></div><div><br /></div><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><div>Dear Justice Ginsburg: </div><div><br /></div><div>I am attaching a very personal letter to the formal invitation. I know that my friend Andreas will make sure you get both. </div><div><br /></div><div>When my father was visiting at Columbia law School in 1977, he asked his much-admired friend Oscar Schachter for the honor of meeting you. When Prof. Schachter asked him why, he said simply, "I have a little daughter." My father brought back to Sri Lanka for me the photo with the three of you. Later in the 1980's he bought Tribe's Constitutional Law treatise, and underlined Frontiero v. Richardson for me, reading excerpts aloud to me on warm nights. When I was a law student in Sri Lanka, I insisted that my Dean Sharya De Soysa include the case along with Marbury v. Madison in our comparative constitutional law lecture. After all, my dean was a Harvard woman too. </div><div><br /></div><div>In very auspicious ways, that winter of 1994 in Joan Williams' class on Feminist Jurisprudence, the first case we read was Harris v. Forklift -- your first case on the Supreme Court and fittingly on sexual harassment in the workplace. I still remember the excitement in our seminar room as we discussed how you would make a difference on the Supreme Court and in the world. </div><div><br /></div><div>I went on to highlight VMI's heightened review standard as well as your early intermediate scrutiny test in Craig v. Boren on sex-based classification in my courses on Women and Comparative Law, which I taught with Judge Nancy Gertner in China. Your work continues to be a leitmotif throughout my life. </div><div><br /></div><div> Twenty-five years after coming to this country and twenty-five years after Harris v. Forklift, I am now at Penn Law. I know that having you with us will make the same difference to our brilliant students that you made in my life. </div><div><br /></div><div>Thank you, </div><div><br /></div><div>Rangita </div><div><br /></div><div> </div><div>Rangita de Silva de Alwis</div><div>University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School</div><div>Nonresident Leader in Practice at Harvard Kennedy School's Women and Public Policy Program (2019-2021)</div></blockquote><div><br /></div>moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-42287739541765509012020-07-27T18:33:00.001-04:002020-07-28T15:40:12.939-04:00Male Allyship as the New Theory and Practice of Gender Equality (Thomson Reuters/ Penn Law Study)<h2>
<b><i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Principal Author: <a href="https://www.law.upenn.edu/cf/faculty/rdesilva/" target="_blank">Rangita de Silva de Alwis</a>, Associate Dean of International Affairs, University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School and Leader in Practice at WAPPP, Harvard Kennedy School (2019-2021)</span></i></b></h2>
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<i><br /></i><i>Rangita de Silva de Alwis thanks <a href="https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/directory/10957/Wilkins" target="_blank">Vice Dean David Wilkins</a> of Harvard Law School for inspiring this study and Dean Theodore Ruger, Dean of Penn Law School for supporting the work. </i></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: inherit;">The following excerpt is from an examination of a study conducted at the University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School on "<a href="https://law.upenn.libguides.com/c.php?g=987672&p=7268457" target="_blank">Allyship in the Future of Work</a>."<br /><br />In the Spring of 2020, a team of Penn Law students interviewed 35 male law students on their philosophy on allyship. Responding to over 35 questions, these future leaders from a diverse demographic, examined patterns of behavior, policies, and principles that could advance allyship and break down barriers to gender and racial equality in institutional settings in law, business, and politics. </span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Introduction: The Challenge</span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">"Our progress, however, is far from finished. In law, and in most elite professions, men still dramatically outnumber women in positions of leadership. Although half of law students and nearly half of lawyers are women, women make up only one-third of attorneys in private practice, 21 percent of equity partners, and 12 percent of the managing partners, chairmen, or CEOs of law firms. Men also run the corporations that we represent as lawyers: fewer than 5 percent of CEOs of Fortune 500 companies are women. Women are also underrepresented as lawmakers and interpreters of the law, making up about 24 percent of Congress, 18 percent of governors, 29 percent of state legislators, 27 percent of mayors of the largest one hundred cities, 27 percent of federal judges,5 and 35 percent of state appellate judges. Why, despite years of equality in access to voting for lawmakers, do women still trail behind men in the legal profession? To understand what holds us back, I believe we need to look beyond political rights—voting, holding office, jury service—to gendered family norms and the workplace structures that reinforce these norms." </span></blockquote>
<blockquote style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />SEE Kerry Abrams, Family, Gender and Leadership in the Legal Profession. Women and L.1,1 (2020) </span></blockquote>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The underrepresentation of women in law and politics in the US in the 21st century unmasks a crisis. Beneath the data lies a human story of barriers, biases, and boundaries that impede the progress of women and minority women. Recent data from the World Bank reveals still quite a long way to go to achieve gender equality in the world, especially in the world of work. For instance, women in 90 economies are legally excluded from certain types of employment. In addition, less than half of the economies covered by the World Bank study have legislation ordering equal remuneration for work of equal value. With regard to parental leave, only 43 economies have paid parental leave that can be shared by mothers and fathers, crucial for the sharing of child care responsibilities between women and men and critical for equalizing the playing field for women and men. As for the economies providing paid maternity leave, almost half of them require the employer to bear the costs either partially or in full and thereby providing a financial incentive for employers to hire men instead of women. Furthermore, 50 economies lack laws protecting women from sexual harassment in the workplace. See World Bank Group, <i><a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/32639/9781464815324.pdf" target="_blank">Women, Business, and the Law 2020</a> </i>(2020).<br /><br />Despite progress, there exists a subtle bias, or what Deborah Rhode has described as "second-generation discrimination" which is hard to pinpoint (and even invisible) but nevertheless creates a harmful undercurrent of gender bias in the workplace, especially against women of color. These daily indignities and exclusions are often defined as a thousand paper cuts. Even though they do not give rise to a viable anti-discrimination claim, yet collectively, these incidents constitute overtime, very real obstacles, and barriers to advancement for women at work. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The most effective step that can be taken is to get women of color into positions of authority and leadership. For this, male allies need to stand up against the overt and subtle forms of bias that robs the workplace of diverse perspectives and impoverishes the public sphere.<br /><br />Bold new solutions are needed to alter the legal landscape on inequality, disrupt sexism, “and the structures that reinforce these norms” in the workplace. We posit a theory and practice of allyship as a renewed vision through which to reconceptualize our workplaces and institutions and as a way to address stereotypes, sexism, and sexual harassment. While legal change is key to addressing gender discrimination in the world of work, more subtle forms of discrimination, including implicit bias, unconscious bias, and sexism demand a new generation of strategies and solutions which privilege difference and identity while disavowing stigma, stereotype, and prejudice. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Full citizenship calls for the ability to participate on equal terms in community and society more generally and allyship plays a role in the actualization of citizenship. According to our respondents, while citizenship calls for inclusive interaction, we should guard against a form of allyship that could reflect existing patterns of disadvantage and reinforce existing power relations and the social construction of gender.<br /><br />Prominent women in Silicon Valley have given expression to their experiences in a masculinized landscape as death (of their careers) by a “thousand paper-cuts” of sexism. Allyship could be the important antidote to expressions of sexism in the workplace. We need to develop allyship as both a theory and practice through renewed conversation and engagement. Yale Law School's Vicki Schultz’ body of work on sexual harassment published in the Yale Law Journal and Stanford Law Review -over a 20 year period views sexual harassment as an expression of workplace sexism, rather than sexuality. “Harassment,” argues Shultz, is a way for ‘dominant men to label women (and perceived lesser men) as inferior and shore up idealized masculine work status and identity." Schultz’s theory challenges a narrow focus: Sexual harassment is a means of maintaining masculine work status rather than an expression of sexuality or sexual desire. Harassment is inked to broader forms of sexist norms that threaten masculinized gender norms. Taking forward her argument, we need new forms of theories and practices to attack masculinized gender norms. Male allyship is one such framework. <br /><br />As part of the Thomson Reuters/ Penn Law study, see <a href="https://www.law.upenn.edu/international/mapping-gender-equality.php" target="_blank">sexual harassment and gender equality laws in the map of fifty states</a> of the United States. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Addressing the Challenge</span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The aim of this study was to provide a set of criteria to determine laws, policies, practices, and institutions on allyship and begs the question, how can we reshape the future of work on the premise of allyship?<br /><br />The world of work, as it is, does not privilege allyship. The term itself cannot be collapsed into a single formula. As our interviews showcase, allyship can redress disadvantages, address stigma, stereotypes, and prejudice, while enhancing dignity, equality, voice, and participation. Allyship’s greatest promise lies in its potential to accommodate differences and achieve structural change.<br /><br />According to respondents, allyship permits us to focus on inclusive interactions and symbiotic relationships, rather than top-down models of authority and interaction Drawing attention to all the dimensions of allyship can help build complementarities and move us forward to a more equal world of work.</span></div>
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moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-52058880080147079022020-07-27T18:04:00.001-04:002020-07-28T15:39:55.764-04:00A New Generation of Male Leaders Provide Insights on How to De Gender Leadership and Remove Stigma of Using Family-Work Policies<h2>
<b><i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Principal Author: <a href="https://www.law.upenn.edu/cf/faculty/rdesilva/" target="_blank">Rangita de Silva de Alwis</a>, Associate Dean of International Affairs, University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School and Leader in Practice at WAPPP, Harvard Kennedy School (2019-2021)</span></i></b></h2>
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<b style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><i>Co-author: Natalie Runyon, Director, Talent, Inclusion & Culture, Thomson Reuters</i></b></h2>
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<i>Rangita de Silva de Alwis thanks <a href="https://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/directory/10957/Wilkins" target="_blank">Vice Dean David Wilkins</a> of Harvard Law School for inspiring this research and Dean Theodore Ruger, Dean of Penn Law School for supporting this project. </i></div>
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Reflecting at a time when we are once again engulfed in racial tension, "The ghost of slavery and the curse of racism still threaten us 400 years later..." writes Wendell Nil Larye Adjetey, the W.L. Mackenzi King Fellow and Lecturer at Harvard University. While the murder of George Floyd, pushes our nation into a public reckoning on our racist history, in the same way that the MeToo Movement challenged our collective conscience about sexism in the workplace, we urge an intersectional understanding of systemic bias and an intersectional approach to addressing those biases.<br />
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The experiences of women of color cannot be collapsed into the narrow boundaries of race or gender that relegate the identity of women of color to a location that resists a more dynamic understanding of the complexity of identity. For far too long, the law has overlooked the rights of LGBTQ and transgender people. The recent Supreme Court decision has begun the long process of naming the clear intersection of discrimination on the basis of sex and LGBTQ discrimination. However, corporate America and society at large have a long way to go for true equity in the workplace of the future. To expedite this journey in January 2020, Rangita de Silva de Alwis, Associate Dean of International Affairs at Penn Law initiated a research project interviewing Gen Z men, which is among the first of its kind, to look at a way to frame the various intersections of race, gender and multiple identities in the context of allyship for a better workplace of the future. The study revealed an impressive and deep understanding of the role of power dynamics in groups and intersectional nuances for effective allyship among Gen Z men and offered their recommendations concerning work-family policies and gender norms to create a more equitable workplace.<br />
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<b>Challenging Masculinized Institutional Structures</b></h4>
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Gendered spheres both in work and in private life have the effect of enshrining masculine norms. These masculine/feminine roles date back to the 19th century. To combat these masculine norms and gendered roles, Ruth Bader Ginsburg’s litigation strategy in the 1970s was to deconstruct gender by challenging institutional structures that reinforced separate spheres based on gender.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_edn1">[i]</a> In the landmark cases of the 1970s, Ginsburg challenged the Idaho law that favored men over women as administrators of their wives estates<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_edn2">[ii]</a> and laws that required breadwinner wives (but not breadwinner husbands) to prove that their spouses were in fact dependent in order to receive certain medical and dental benefits.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_edn3">[iii]</a> Ginsburg also challenged federal laws that gave survivor benefits to homemaker wives of breadwinner husbands but not to homemaker husbands of breadwinner wives.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_edn4">[iv]</a> <br />
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Joan C. William argues that: “Placing masculinity at the center of feminist analysis is not the same as placing men there. Instead it involves recognizing that workplace gender bias against women stems from masculine norms in jobs that historically were held by men.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_edn5">[v]</a> She posits that not only are masculine norms harmful to women’s advancement in the workplace, but that they create pressures on men to perform in a way that is harmful to their health and family stability.<br />
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<b>Work-Family Policy Solutions from Gen Z Men</b></h4>
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Negative societal attitudes toward parental leave and work-family policies, in general, appear to be changing among younger male white-collar workers. Research from Penn Law and Thomson Reuters on perspectives of allyship among Gen Z men revealed that 88 percent of them indicated that they are likely-to-very-likely to use work-family policies, and 57 percent stated that they were likely not to be influenced by negative perceptions of taking advantage of these policies by their male peers and leadership at their employers.</div>
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To emphasize the point about not being influenced by the stigma of peers or executives, one man at Penn Law shared about how he watched the difficulties of his family having to “re-arrange work arrangements, schedules and take time off to help care for his grandfather who had progressive Alzheimer’s disease.”</div>
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While employers more and more are offering work-family policies, which include parental leave, flexible hours and remote working, is great progress, the gender gap between moms and dads using them and the corresponding career advancement gap will continue if the organizational culture continues to penalize employees for taking advantage of these policies. To address the challenge, two Gen Z men put it simply. </div>
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<li>“Advocating for flexible hours, working from home…helps men and women, and …Flextime should already be policy, and part-time work at commensurate pay should be allowed,” according to one man.</li>
<li>Another offered that as a current father and husband, he “need[s] flexible hours, work-from-home options…because I intend to be present for my family and give my wife the same opportunities I have. As a father, I intend one day to work many hours from home, having flex time and, if the case requires, part-time.”</li>
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The Gen Z men at Penn Law participating in the research offered several ideas to remove the stigma:<br />
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<u>Offer the same amount of leave for moms and dads.</u> Several of those we interviewed indicated that it was important for parental leave to be equal between mothers and fathers—fully paid with the same amount of time off. To underscore the point, one man commented, “As long as you’re only extending childcare leave to [only] women, you’re enforcing the stereotype that their role is child care…Extending it to both parents allows the family to make whatever decision is best for them regarding parental care and child care regardless of gender.”</div>
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To reinforce the point, another Penn Law student commented that most of the discrimination events he had witnessed against women in the workplace was in relation to soon-to-be mothers passed over for an important project or promotion because they were about to give birth and be away from the office on parental leave. He offered that “a way of trying to combat this…is to mandatorily grant to male employees parental leave equal to women.”</div>
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<u>Mandate taking parental leave.</u> Several of the men suggested that organizations should require parents to take the full amount of parental leave to close the usage gap between moms and dads and to solve the career advancement gap between men women. “I think in general most policies shouldn’t be gender-specific…[and that] everyone should get paid during parental leave and it should be mandatory,” one interviewee said.</div>
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The consequence of avoiding the mandate reinforces the status quo. One student shared a story about a discussion of extending equal family leave in his constitutional law class. He stated, “A lot of times because of the types of structural biases we have, women will still end up taking the leave and men will not.” He further elaborated that some members in his class brought up that “even if they had parental leave, they would feel that they could not take it because of the bias in the workplace that they were expected to work through his wife’s pregnancy, delivery, and early child care” because that the unwritten norm.”</div>
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Even the young Japanese lawyer talked about the tensions inherent in work-family policies. He said that he is “not likely to use work-family policies,” but saw the benefit of such policies. A Japanese law student, dad of daughters, and someone who quit working in Japan to come to the U.S. for enrollment in law school full time “came to know how hard taking care of them [his children] is” after his family arrived in the States. He added, “This is a really difficult task, so I can guess several men might think that these policies are not beneficial for themselves, though I don’t agree with them.”</div>
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De-gendering Leadership and Unmasking Masculinized Expectations</h4>
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Society has been on a journey to break down what is considered masculine and feminine behaviors and characteristics with the expansion of transgender and gender non-conforming inclusion, but the traditional norms governing what is masculine and feminine is still very much pervasive in our society starting from the very beginning of life through “gendering” baby clothes between blue and pink for boys and girls, respectively. </div>
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<a href="https://www.legalexecutiveinstitute.com/male-law-students-shaping-inclusive-workplaces/">Penn Law and the Legal Executive Institute</a> sought to explore this evolution through interviews with Gen Z men in law school asking them about their perspectives on masculinity and leadership and how they impact attitudes towards allyship. You can read emerging insights from the research <a href="https://www.legalexecutiveinstitute.com/male-allyship-study-penn-law/">here</a>.</div>
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Most of the law students interviewed at Penn Law shared that hyper-masculine behaviors, which include expectations of self-sufficiency, acting tough, sticking to rigid gender roles, acting heterosexual, not showing emotion, and showing aggression to resolve conflicts are some of the conventional societal expectations. Only 20 percent indicated that they had not been impacted by these norms.</div>
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The accounts below show the variety of how social definitions of masculinity adversely impacting these men, underscoring the need to de-gender leadership behaviors because men are carrying these societal norms into the workplace:<br />
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<li><u>Tension around crying.</u> One interviewee stated, “Crying is apparently not masculine at all; only women can cry!...But it was a very real thing that I dealt with…the rejection of all that had been deemed “feminine” by the powers that be, whether they be my culture, parents or the media.”</li>
<li><u>Conforming to rigid gender roles.</u> One man characterized masculinity as “100 percent performance.” As a bi-sexual man, he states, “I have to perform the way I act, the way my voice is, the way I move my hands, and the way I dress...All of this is also fundamentally tied to stereotypes about masculinity.”</li>
<li><u>Acting tough.</u> Another man revealed that perceptions around toughness had impacted him his whole life. He was bullied as a kid because he was perceived by others as weak and “felt pressure to work out and put on muscle to make myself seem more intimidating.”</li>
<li><u>Demonstrating heterosexuality.</u> Still another person interviewed admitted how peers questioned his sexual orientation when he advocated on behalf of women. “I definitely feel judgment when I speak out on behalf of women…. You get comments questioning whether you’re straight (heterosexual) or not…”.</li>
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One-fifth of the men expressed a more nuanced set of experiences in the need to adhere to masculinity, and the shift in understanding during the journey from childhood to adulthood was the common theme. One Gen Z man of color revealed that his belief system about masculinity was informed by his religion and ethnicity, “but as I have become an adult, I am no longer directed by such stereotypical/trope related sentiments.” Another male student explained that while he and his peers were socialized to comply with gender norms in the past they don’t apply “much to his experience now.” However, he noted that he knows a number of people who would identify with hyper-masculine behavior descriptors.</div>
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Finally, a small minority—ten percent—outright rejected the need to obey the “rules of masculinity.” To illustrate, one man elaborated. “I have quite enjoyed, from an early age, showing dissent through non-conformity with masculine norms…and the critical self-analysis that has resulted, in which I spend time thinking about whether certain attributes I possess are a product of societal norms or my own choice.”<br />
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No matter where one falls on the spectrum of the giving in to the insistence of gender norms by society, what is true is that they do not serve men, women or GNC individuals and that there is too much emphasis on applying a gender label to leadership traits, behaviors, hobbies, and apparel. In the words of a fellow participant and fellow member of the allyship research team, “We’re at a point where we’ve acquiesced in the gendering of (or overt association with a particular sexual orientation) fragrances, interior and exterior car colors, hairstyles, sports interest, and dance or acting ability, to name just a few. This is a status quo worthy of prompt disruption. We’re hurting one another and ourselves when we agree to play by rules, we did not ourselves write.”<br />
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<i>Thanks David Wilkins of Harvard Law School and Dean Theodore Ruger of Penn Law School for their support. </i><br />
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_ednref1">[i]</a> Joan C. Williams, Reshaping the Work-Family Debate: Why Men and Class Matter 93, 115 (Harvard University Press 2010).<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_ednref2">[ii]</a> See e.g. Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971).<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_ednref3">[iii]</a> See e.g. Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677 (1973).<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_ednref4">[iv]</a> See e.g. Weinberger v. Weisenfeld, 420 U.S. 636 (1975).<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_ednref5">[v]</a> Id. at 98.</div>
moira notarstefanohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17120686105890300305noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-14979701943189226652020-01-29T15:26:00.000-05:002020-03-26T16:41:50.402-04:00The Unintended Consequences of Diversity & Inclusion Initiatives: Lisa Leslie’s Recent Work & Ideas for Putting her Framework to Use<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
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<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-text-indent-alt: -.25in; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<h2>
<b style="text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><i>By Rebecca Temkin and Taimi Itembu</i></span></span></b></h2>
<div>
<b style="text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><i><br /></i></span></span></b></div>
<h3>
<span style="text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">I.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></span><span style="text-indent: -22.5pt;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN">Increasingly,
evidence shows that organizational diversity and inclusion initiatives (DIIs)
are frequently ineffective, or worse, that they lead to worse diversity and
inclusion related outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example,
data shows that standard sexual harassment training may actually worsen
behavior among certain employees, leading to increased rates of harassment
following trainings (Dobbin & Kalev, 2017).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Professor Lisa Leslie, a thought leader in organizational diversity,
seeks to understand and explain the mechanisms by which organizational DIIs are
failing. Recently, she has developed a broad theory to explain the unintended
consequences of DIIs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<span lang="EN">In her 2019 WAPPP
presentation, Leslie presented her framework of unintended consequences, which
may be used to anticipate, evaluate, and ward against unintended consequences
of diversity and inclusion efforts. Specifically, she discussed four types of
unintended consequences that result from such initiatives, four signals (ie.
interpretations of DIIs) that give rise to the typology of unintended
consequences, and the implications of this soon-to-be-published theory for
organizational DIIs (Leslie, 2019).</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="Normal1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-text-indent-alt: -.25in; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">II.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Leslie’s 4 Types of
Unintended Consequences<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<span lang="EN">Leslie posits that
well-intended DIIs seek to achieve three main outcomes: increased
representation of the target group, especially organizational leadership;
reduced gaps in career success between the target and non-target groups; and
increased feelings of inclusion among target group members.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, research shows that DIIs produced
mixed results.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, Leslie developed a
theory to explain the heterogeneous effects of DIIs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This theory recognizes four types of
unintended consequences - backfire, negative spillover, positive spillover, and
false progress - which result from multiple and overlapping signaling pathways.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<span lang="EN">The four types of
unintended consequences can be placed in a matrix (Figure 1), with desirability
of outcome along the vertical axis, and the intentionality of the outcome
variable itself on the horizontal axis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>A backfire is an undesirable effect on an outcome variable that the
policy <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">was</i> trying to impact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Negative spillover is an undesirable effect
on an outcome variable that the policy was<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">
not</i> intended to impact. Positive spillover is a desirable effect on an
outcome variable that the policy was <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not </i>intended
to impact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>False progress is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">appearance</i> of a desirable effect on an
outcome variable that the policy <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">was</i>
trying to impact, without any true change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Outcome
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Undesirable Effect<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Desirable Effect<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Figure 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN">To illustrate these
four unintended consequences, imagine an organization put in place a diversity
program with the singular goal of increasing representation of African-American
employees in leadership positions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If
the result of the program was a decrease in African-American organizational
leaders, this would be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">backfire, </i>because
it is the opposite of the intended effect.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If the program led white employees to resent African-American employees,
this would be a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">negative spillover</i>
effect, because this is an undesirable outcome on a variable (attitude of
non-target group members towards target group members) that the program did <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not</i> set out to impact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the program led employees to gain
increased respect for the organization, this would be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">positive spillover</i>, because this would be a desirable outcome on a
variable that the policy was <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not</i>
trying to impact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Finally, if the
program led to alterations in African-American employees’ job titles to appear
managerial without accompanying shifts in organizational structure or
responsibilities, this would be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">false
progress</i>, because there would appear to be a positive change on the
intended outcome variable without any true change.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">III.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Leslie’s Signalling Theory<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Leslie notes, that even if leaders have good
intentions, implementing diversity and inclusion policies may send signals to
other people that lead to unintended consequences. The four signals she talks
about that might result from implementation of DIIs are:<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> targets are more likely than non-targets to succeed; targets need help
to succeed; the organization values morality; the organization values making
progress on diversity goals.</i> We provide examples of each signalling pathway
below.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Signal 1</span></b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Targets are more likely than non- targets to succeed</i>:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">For example if a non-target employee perceived it to
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the DII, they may resent African-American organizational leaders, which would
be a negative spillover effect. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Signal 3</span></b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Organization values moralit</i>y: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">A company with great DIIs may signal that they value
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Singal 4</span></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;"> Diversity goal progress is valued: <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">A DII may signal that the objective is to look good,
rather than to improve in diversity and inclusion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This may translate into “for show” behaviors
that do little to increase workplace diversity, which is false progress.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Each of these signals might act through multiple
psychological or behavioral pathways, leading to multiple responses and
consequences (Figure 2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Further, the
type of DII implemented likely impacts the signals sent or received.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">resource-based </i></b>policies,
which typically provide more concrete and practical interventions, such as<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mentoring program</span><span lang="EN">s for
target groups, <span style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">often signal
that target groups are most likely to succeed or that the targets are in need
of help. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Non-discrimination</i> </b>policies sometimes referred to as
“identity-blind” practices, seek to ensure that hiring and promotions are based
on skills and qualifications and not on demographics. Non-discrimination
policies send a strong signal that morality is valued. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Accountability</i></b>
initiatives create mechanisms that assign responsibility </span></span><span lang="EN" style="background: white; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-highlight: white;">for and monitor diversity outcomes, </span><span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">and often signal that meeting DII
goals is the organization’s focus, rather than improving diversity itself,
making these initiatives more likely to lead to false progress.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-duXZI_XlB38/XjHqR-nQfLI/AAAAAAAAAPs/b70kdnsBsFcuG8UW5kAkncOmM3OWKf9uwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/chart.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="686" data-original-width="828" height="265" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-duXZI_XlB38/XjHqR-nQfLI/AAAAAAAAAPs/b70kdnsBsFcuG8UW5kAkncOmM3OWKf9uwCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/chart.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">IV.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Discussion <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN">The identities of
organizational leaders implementing DIIs and other setting-specific
characteristics are likely to impact the signals at play, and therefore the
potential unintended consequences of any given DII.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leslie acknowledges this, and indicated, much
the way Iris Bohnet did when asked how to anticipate what instruments will be
most effective for de-biasing organizational systems and procedures (Bohnet,
2019), that every setting is extremely nuanced and must be assessed
individually.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="background: #F4CCCC;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
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<!--EndFragment--></span></div>
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<span lang="EN">The desire for a more
nuanced theory or framework speaks to a tension common to many
implementation-focused disciplines and practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Namely, there is a paradoxical desire for a
framework to be ‘one-size-fits-all’ -- applicable to any case -- and
simultaneously detailed and nuanced enough to appropriately address the unique
features of each setting in which it is applied.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately, such a framework does not
exist for organizational diversity, and indeed, may never be possible or
appropriate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Leslie’s framework
of types and causes of unintended outcomes is a tool that can be used to assess
existing and potential DIIs, to anticipate and minimize the undesirable
unintended effects, and to maximize the desirable unintended effects. </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-text-indent-alt: -.25in; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">V.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Recommendations: What Works<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<span lang="EN">For organizations
seeking to implement DIIs, we urge leaders to anticipate the unintended effects
of potential programs, using Leslie’s framework as a guide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consider the signals a given policy might
send in the specific organizational context - will race, gender, parental
status, employees or other characteristics of program leadership impact how
your new policies are viewed?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What
strategies might you use to mitigate or counteract anticipated negative interpretations
of your new policy?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Attitudes,
communication, and behaviors from organizational leaders will have tremendous
impacts on the success or failure of DIIs, because as Dobbin and Kalev say,
“culture is shaped from the to<span style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">p”
(Dobbin & Kalev, 2017).</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Thus, CEOs and other leaders need to take a strong
public stand - they should be the first in line for DII trainings and programs,
and should chair the committees tasked with solving organizational challenges.
In the U.S. Armed Forces, in response to alarmingly high rates of sexual
harassment experienced by women service members, major anti-harassment efforts
were implemented, with increased leadership involvement through anti-harassment
messaging, regular trainings, and the establishment of formal and informal
reporting mechanisms. Women who reported that their commanders supported these
measures also </span><span lang="EN"><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/josi.12086/abstract"><span style="background: white; color: windowtext; mso-highlight: white; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">reported</span></a><span style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;"> less harassment, and greater satisfaction with the
organisation’s responses to their complaints (Dobbin & Kalev, 2017).</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Next, rather than assuming a new initiative will work,
Leslie notes that organisations need to implement a holistic approach to
evaluation. It is important to measure not only diversity goal progress, but
other mechanisms and outcomes, such as ethical climate perception, </span><!--EndFragment--></span></div>
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<span lang="EN">employee
organizational engagement, and employee behaviors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Essentially, DII leaders must assess progress
in ways that guard against “false progress” effects, and allow for discovery of
negative outcomes of the initiative. Leslie’s framework of unintended
consequences would be a useful guide in developing an evaluation strategy that
measures both intended and unintended consequences of DIIs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN">Finally, in
developing DIIs, representation is a key piece to the puzzle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Dobbin and Kalev explain, “harassment
flourishes in organizations where few women hold the ‘core’ jobs. Fixing this
is about finding power in numbers, not just in authority and hierarchy” (Dobbin
& Kalev, 2017).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As explained by
Monica Ramirez, a champion for farmworker, Latina, and immigrant women, and a
strong supporter of worker-led movements, we must make space for and pass the
mic to those who are underrepresented to tell their own stories and become
leaders in change (Ramirez, 2019). Organizations seeking to improve in
diversity and inclusivity should consider these points seriously, and ensure
that the members of groups they hope to lift up hold meaningful positions
within the organization and have opportunities to shape new organizational
DIIs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">VI.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></span></span></div>
<div class="Normal1" style="margin-left: 22.5pt;">
<span lang="EN">The impact of any
given policy or program will undoubtedly result in heterogeneous effects across
different contexts, and while good intentions about increasing diversity and
inclusivity are admirable, good intentions are not enough.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With frameworks such as Leslie’s in hand, we
now have tools to assess the impacts of those good intentions, and it is time
for every organizational leader to ensure that DIIs do not cause more harm than
good.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-18330560256008222812020-01-29T14:42:00.001-05:002020-01-29T14:42:36.656-05:00They, Them, and Theirs: Including Nonbinary Gender Identities in Law and Policy with Cici Coquillette
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Nonbinary gender has become increasingly visible in American
life over the last few years. Nonbinary gender means that individuals do not identify
exclusively as men or women; some identify as a gender, genderqueer, or
genderfluid, among others. Gender identity is distinct from sex assigned at
birth or gender expression. While some nonbinary people do identify as trans,
intersex, or androgynous, nonbinary gender identity exists separate and apart
from these other categories.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nonbinary gender is neither a new phenomenon nor a
specifically American one: many other cultures have had nonbinary gender
categories for centuries, including Indian hijra and Native American Two-Spirit.
Nevertheless, nonbinary gender has become increasingly salient in the last few
years. Beginning in2017, nonbinary actor Asia Kate Dillon portrayed the first
nonbinary character on mainstream American TV on the show Billions. Dana Zzyym,
a nonbinary and intersex activist, recently won a court case to permit an X
gender designation on a U.S. passport, rather than M or F. According to the
Williams Institute, there are approximately half a million nonbinary
individuals in the United States–roughlythe population of Miami.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Despite this increased visibility, some have expressed
hesitancy about nonbinary gender, worrying that accepting nonbinary gender
would throw our legal system into disarray. Even some progressive feminists and
LGBT activists worried that fully incorporating nonbinary gender would be impractical
or utopian. But is this true? How does the law actually use binary gender
classifications? And what would it look like for the law to take nonbinary
gender seriously?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Professor Jessica Clarke, Professor of Law at Vanderbilt Law
School, presented on her recent paper They, Them, and Theirs, published in the Harvard
Law Review. Professor Clarke has written extensively on American equality law,
including constitutional and statutory anti-discrimination law. In this paper, Professor
Clarke argues that law and policy can modestly extend existing civil rights
concepts to protect nonbinary individuals and, in so doing, can benefit the
feminist and LGBT rights projects more broadly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">GENDER AND THE LAW<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">After the U.S. Supreme Court’s landmark ruling in Obergefell
v. Hodges, which struck down laws that defined marriage as between a man and a
woman, only a few laws actually refer to men or women in binary gender terms. Professor
Clarke notes several in her paper, including laws governing gender markers on
identification documents, affirmative action for women, single-sex schooling and
sports teams, and sex-segregated restrooms and housing. Even in these narrow
areas in which the law still relies on binary gender, Professor Clarke argues
that one of three mechanisms can incorporate nonbinary gender without significantly
disrupting the legal scheme.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The first, sex and gender neutrality, would eliminate all
gender classifications in an area of the law. One example would be creating
“all-gender restrooms” rather than gender-segregated ones. The second, third
category recognition, would create a new legal category for nonbinary gender on
par with existing binary gender labels. As with the Dana Zzyym case, this could
entail having an “X” gender marker on a passport, rather than “M” or “F.” Finally,
integration would reinterpret categories along functional lines to make space
for nonbinary individuals. Professor Clarke notes that a gynecologist might say
“I only treat people with a uterus, ovaries, or other body parts I specialize
in” rather than “I only treat women, thereby encompassing nonbinary
individuals, trans individuals, and those with intersex characteristics who
might not identify as “women” but still need gynecological care. Critically,
Professor Clarke says, no one of these mechanisms will work perfectly in every
context. Instead, we must ask what competing interests are at stake in each
legal context.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">CASE STUDIES<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Because this year’s WAPPP seminar series is focused on the
workplace, Professor Clarke presented on two legal contexts most relevant to
workplace inclusion: pronoun use and restrooms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pronouns<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One of the main oppositions voiced to accepting nonbinary
gender is the concern that workplace harassment law will require the use of
unfamiliar pronouns, such as the singular they or pronouns likeze/hir. Certain
right-wing media outlets consider this possibility to be a unique,
unprecedented threat to free speech. In fact, rules requiring respect for an
individual’s preferred pronouns under a “recognition” approach would require
only a modest extension of existing harassment law.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">American equality law indicates that some speech can be
compelled when that speech reflects a change toward equality. In the famous Miss
Mary Hamilton case, a civil rights activist challenged the practice of
referring to Black litigants only by their first names in court. Mary Hamilton
was held in contempt of court when she refused to respond to “Mary” rather than
“Miss Hamilton.” The U.S. Supreme Court summarily reversed the contempt charge,
holding in 1964thatcourtscannotdiscriminate on the basis of race in their form
of address.In the 1970s, feminists advanced the honorific “Ms.” to deflect
attention away from marital status for women, which has since seen widespread adoption.
The same may occur for the nonbinary honorific “Mx.” It is well within the
law’s purview to compel speech that confers equal respect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Professor Clarke dismissed concerns based on the grammar of
the singular “they.” In addition to the normative objection–that the rules of
grammar should not trump whether we treat one another with respect–practically,
English has always used a singular “they” for people of an unknown gender. Similarly,
concerns that a singular and plural “they” will be confusing lack merit:
English has a singular and plural “you” that people are able to navigate
without much trouble. Language is dynamic and continually adapts to new social contexts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Crucially, accidental misgendering or mistakes in pronoun
usage are generally not a legal violation. It is only repeated, intentional refusal
to use someone’s preferred pronouns as a form of disrespect that would trigger
harassment law. Harassment must be both subjectively offensive and objectively unreasonable:
this objective standard takes into account social norms. As more people decide
to use nonbinary pronouns or honorifics, the idea that it is reasonable to
refuse to use someone’s preferred terms will lose force. Just as binary terms
are respected, so too should nonbinary terms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Restrooms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Several states have recently introduced “bathroom bills” that
would restrict public restroom access for trans and nonbinary individuals.
These bills play on fears of trans or nonbinary people that are not supported
by evidence. In fact, trans and nonbinary people are disproportionately likely
to be victimized by harassment and violence in public restrooms, rather than
being perpetrators. In this context, Professor Clarke calls for a “neutrality” approach,
moving toward all-gender restrooms as beneficial for gender equality and
defanging anti-LGBT bias.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rather than the individuals using them, the biggest problem for
public restrooms in the United States is their design: the large gaps in stall
doors, among other design features, do little to confer a sense of privacy. The
lack of privacy and security built into public restroom design hinges on
heteronormative assumptions, that restroom users shouldn’t be threatened by same-gender
users. However, restroom users may want privacy for any number of reasons apart
from the presence of other users, and there are a number of other possible
design solutions to accommodate greater restroom privacy without restricting
who uses it. All-gender restrooms with enclosed stalls and communal sink areas
would be particularly useful in the workplace, where productivity is often
sacrificed to waiting in line for gender-segregated restrooms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Even ostensibly practical barriers to implementing
all-gender restrooms are surmountable. Anachronistic building codes that
require segregated restroom facilities can be changed or worked around, and converting
to all-gender restrooms is no more costly than a typical retrofit. Some might argue
that1.4 million trans people and 500,000 nonbinary people in the United States is
too small a number to justify the cost, but with 3.4 million wheelchair users
in the United States, every restroom must comply with the Americans with
Disabilities Act. Restrooms have been redesigned to be more accommodating in
the past and could continue to do so in the future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nonbinary gender identity is increasingly better understood
and accepted, but nonbinary people still experience violence, harassment, and
discrimination. Professor Clarke persuasively argues that nonbinary inclusion
using familiar civil rights tools will not only not upend our current legal
regime, but may have benefits for us all.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-87670944063168316292020-01-21T11:50:00.000-05:002020-01-29T13:08:57.023-05:00Research Support for Family Paid Leave Policies with Morgan Healy and Lauren Zabierek <!--[if !mso]>
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<span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cities and states across America are
leading the push for paid family leave policies, as calls for national
legislation seem to grow louder every day. The United States is one of only two
developed countries in the world that does not provide its citizens any form of
federal paid family and medical leave</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">[1]. Given that America’s workforce is now comprised of predominantly
dual-earner households [2] where a majority of mothers with young children are
active contributors to the labor force [3], it is no surprise that debates in
favor of paid family leave policies are gaining traction.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The current national leave policy, known
as the federal </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/whdfs28.pdf"><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Family and
Medical Leave Act</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (FMLA), offers American workers 12 weeks of
unpaid leave to care for newborns or seriously ill family members (in companies
of 50 or more employees). While these unpaid leave provisions are job-secured,
they are not mandated and only cover 60% of the workforce<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">.[4] Those who cannot afford to miss
work, but must do so in order care for a sick child or welcome a new baby into
the world, know that every day away from work incurs huge economic losses for
their family. Each year in the US, families lose billions of dollars in wages
by taking unpaid leave or reducing their time to care for family members.[5]<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Paid
family leave policies allow families to forgo the impossible choice between an
early return to work at the cost of family member wellbeing and a later return
to work at the cost of financial wellbeing. Other than stabilizing earnings
during critical moments, paid family leave policies are linked to other
positive outcomes. Studies suggest that families with access to paid family
leave policies experience lower rates of infant mortality,[6] higher rates of immunization
[7] and higher rates of breastfeeding [8]. The positive impacts of parental
leave on child developmental outcomes are maximized when the leave is paid and
provided in a job-secure context [9].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Paid
family leave policies have also been linked to both mothers staying in the
workforce longer and mothers being better connected to the workforce, which is
associated with higher earnings [10]. Findings further show that fathers who
are able to use their paid leave provisions, felt they developed a closer
relationship with their infants [11], were 25 percent more likely to change
diapers and 19 percent more likely to get up at night to take care of their babies
[12].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Outside
of the benefits for families, flexible paid leave policies have also been
linked to empirically-demonstrated benefits on employee hiring, retention, and morale
[13]. Policies that support families are regularly cited as the single most
important factor in attracting and retaining employees [14].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Current
Paid Leave Policies<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Despite the lack of a paid family leave
policy at the national level, the good news is that many states have shouldered
the responsibility where the federal government hasn’t. Legislatures in CA, MA,
NY, NJ, RI, and WA have recently passed sweeping paid parental leave
legislation into law. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Jane Waldfogel, </span><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 13.3333px;">Compton Foundation Centennial Professor of Social Work for the Prevention of Children’s and Youth Problems at Columbia School of Social Work, is </span><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">a leading researcher on
paid family leave policies in the U.S. She and her team have taken a specific look
at California’s Paid Family Leave law (CA-PFL) and evaluated its reception by employers
and employees across the state. </span><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">CA-PFL
was originally passed in 2002 and implemented in 2004.</span><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt;">The law is groundbreaking in that it marked
the first time a state mandated and administered a paid family leave program,
making paid parental leave available to both fathers and mothers.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The researchers found that after the
enactment of the law, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">California mothers and fathers took more
leave overall, and fathers took more father-only and joint <span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">leave </span></i></b><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">[15]. Compared to California fathers
prior to the passage of the act, Waldfogel, et al identified a 46% increase in
the likelihood of fathers taking family leave after the birth of their child.
While this statistic represents a small overall increase in the number of days
of leave taken (from approximately one week to 1.5 weeks), the increase in the
intended behavior is significant. According to Waldfogel, et al, in 2013 less
than 2% of employed men with children under the age of one in the United States
reported being on leave [16].<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
importance of the discovery that more parents, and especially fathers, took
more parental leave as a result of this law cannot be overstated. It proves
that <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">these
laws can produce the intended outcomes, giving parents more time at home to
bond with and take care of their children without the worry of missing full
paychecks</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>.</u></i> For
low-income parents without prior access to paid leave through their employers,
the law is particularly impactful. For the first time, they possess the same
ability to care for their families as their higher-income peers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To be
sure, the law is not a panacea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Funding
for the legislation is administered by the State Disability Insurance program,
which employees pay into to receive Paid Family Leave (PFL)</span><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><!--[if !supportAnnotations]--><a class="msocomanchor" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_msocom_1" id="_anchor_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1">[JW1]</a></span></span><span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The PFL replaces
70% of a low-income employee’s wages and 60% of high-income earners’ wages over
six weeks (up from 55% across the board when the law was first passed) [17].<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Waldfogel’s research suggests that 55% of
replaced wages might not have been enough to induce fathers to take the full
six weeks of leave, so it will be important to investigate any increase in the
likelihood of fathers taking leave in California due to increasing these measures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will also be critical to assess the
increase in the amount of leave taken as a result of the wage replacement
increase in 2018. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Harvard Kennedy School Women and Public Policy Program hosted Waldfogel</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> as a guest lecturer in March 2019. The subject of her seminar was exploring the
impact of paid family leave on employers <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null">[18]. </a></span><span class="MsoCommentReference" style="font-size: 11pt;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a class="msocomanchor" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_msocom_2" id="_anchor_2" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_2">[JW2]</a> </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> She and her team surveyed employers </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">in Rhode Island,
New Jersey, and New York – three states that passed and implemented paid family
leave laws. They found that across a range of industries and the spectrum of business
size<u>,</u><i> <b>fully two thirds of firms were supportive of paid family leave</b></i><b>—</b>busting the myth that these policies
have detrimental impact on small businesses [19].</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Final Recommendations for Paid Family and Medical
Leave</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Despite small shortfalls in the paid
family leave wage replacement, the California Paid Family Leave act is an
important model for the rest of the country.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>First, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">62% of American workers said they have had to or are very likely to
have to take time off from work for a family or medical reason </i></b>[20].<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many of those workers are low-income earners
who say they cannot afford to forego their salary during that time. Paid family
leave helps low-income workers and their families by allowing parents to take
six weeks of paid family leave, giving them the ability to bond as a family or
take care of a sick family member without the stress of having to choose
between family and work [21]. Where men remain the primary breadwinners, even
in dual-income families, the availability of paid leave for men is particularly
important [22].<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, through our
research on other paid family leave models<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">,<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> the Insurance Program model appears to be
a best practice.</b></i> Insurance Programs have gained the approval of
businesses and employees alike and could have<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" style="mso-comment-date: 20190502T1136; mso-comment-done: yes; mso-comment-reference: JW_3;"> better</a></span><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><!--[if !supportAnnotations]--><a class="msocomanchor" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4781883626284108757#_msocom_3" id="_anchor_3" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_3">[JW3]</a><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-special-character: comment;"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> chance at
becoming law than state-only or employer-only funded plans [23].<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Finally, by enacting a paid family and
medical leave policy rather than just parental leave, the law covers more
workers making the appeal and the access to leave more comprehensive—across
gender and life events. We believe these factors make for best policy and
practice and encourage other states to adopt similar models.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> International Labor Organization “Maternity and Paternity at Work”
2014. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">[2] The </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">Rise in Dual Income Households.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pew Research Center, </i>2012. </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/ft_dual-income-households-1960-2012-2/"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">https://www.pewresearch.org/ft_dual-income-households-1960-2012-2/</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">[3] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">US
Department of Labor: Beareau of Labor Statistics. Women in the Labor Force: A
databook. November 20167. </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-databook/2017/home.htm"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;">https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-databook/2017/home.htm</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4] Kurani et. al, “Paid Family Leave and
Sick Days in the U.S.: Findings from the 2016 Kaiser/HRET Employer Heal</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">th Benefits Survey” (2017). </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/issue-brief/paid-family-leave-and-sick-days-in-the-u-s-findings-from-the-2016-kaiser-hret-employer-health-benefits-survey/"><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/issue-brief/paid-family-leave-and-sick-days-in-the-u-s-findings-from-the-2016-kaiser-hret-employer-health-benefits-survey/"><span style="color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria;">https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/issue-brief/paid-family-leave-and-sick-days-in-the-u-s-findings-from-the-2016-kaiser-hret-employer-health-benefits-survey/<o:p></o:p></span></a></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[5] Glynn</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, S. & Corley, D. “The Cost of
Work-Family<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Policy Inaction Quantifying
the Costs Families Currently Face<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as a
Result of Lacking U.S. Work-Family Policies.” September, 2016. </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/22060013/CostOfWorkFamilyPolicyInaction-report.pdf"><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/22060013/CostOfWorkFamilyPolicyInaction-report.pdf"><span style="color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria;">https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/22060013/CostOfWorkFamilyPolicyInaction-report.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></a></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[6] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ruhm, C. “Parental leave and child health.” 2000.</span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167629600000473"><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"> </span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167629600000473"><span style="color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria;">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167629600000473<o:p></o:p></span></a></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[7] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O’Brien, M. “Fathers, Parental Leave Policies, and Infant Quality of
Life: International Perspectives and Policy Impacts.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[8] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Galtry, J. 2003. The impact on breastfeeding of labour market policy
and practice in Ireland, Sweden, and the USA. Social Science and Medicine
57:167-77. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[9] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">O’Brien, M. “Fathers, Parental Leave Policies, and Infant Quality of
Life: International Perspectives and Policy Impacts.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[10] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Houser, L. & Vartanian, T. A Report from the Center for Women and
Work, Pay Matters: The Positive Economic Impacts of Paid Family Leave for
Families, Businesses and the Public. 2012.</span><span lang="EN"><a href="http://www.nationalpartnership.org/our-work/resources/workplace/other/pay-matters.pdf"><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"> </span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.nationalpartnership.org/our-work/resources/workplace/other/pay-matters.pdf"><span style="color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria;">http://www.nationalpartnership.org/our-work/resources/workplace/other/pay-matters.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></a></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[11] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Huttunen’s (1996) as cited in O’Brien, 2007<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[12] Tanaka </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">and Waldfogel, 2007 as cited in
O’Briend, 2007<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[13] </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Victoria Budson’s Remarks. Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee,
Meeting on Paid Leave.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>March 18, 2015.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]The </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Council of Economic Advisors “The
Economics of Paid and Unpaid Leave” 2014.</span><span lang="EN"><a href="http://whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/doc/leave_report_final.pdf"><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"> </span></a><a href="http://whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/doc/leave_report_final.pdf"><span style="color: blue; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">http://whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/doc/leave_report_final.pdf</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[15]
Bartel, A. P., Rossin-Slater, M., Ruhm, C. J., Stearns, J., & Waldfogel, J.
(2018). Paid Family Leave, Fathers’ Leave-Taking, and Leave-Sharing in
Dual-Earner Households. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 37(1)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[16]
Ibid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[17] </span><span lang="EN"><a href="http://www.capradio.org/articles/2017/12/26/california-increasing-parental-leave-benefits-in-2018/"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">http://www.capradio.org/articles/2017/12/26/california-increasing-parental-leave-benefits-in-2018/</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[18]
Jane Waldfogel’s Remarks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Women and
Public Policy Program Seminar: Paid Family and Medical Leave: What Are We
Learning from Surveys of Employers? March 28, 2019.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[19]
Ibid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[20]
Horowitz, J., Parker, K., Graf, N., & Livingston, G. Americans Widely
Support Paid Family and Medical Leave, but Differ Over Specific Policies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pew
Research Center, </i>2017<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">.</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/03/23/americans-widely-support-paid-family-and-medical-leave-but-differ-over-specific-policies/"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/03/23/americans-widely-support-paid-family-and-medical-leave-but-differ-over-specific-policies/</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[21]
Ibid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[22]
Bartel, A. P., Rossin-Slater, M., Ruhm, C. J., Stearns, J., & Waldfogel, J.
(2018). Paid Family Leave, Fathers’ Leave-Taking, and Leave-Sharing in
Dual-Earner Households. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 37(1)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[23]
Small Group Discussion with Jane Waldfogel, Harvard Kennedy School.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>March 28, 2019.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/doc/leave_report_final.pdf"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><o:p></o:p></span></a></span></div>
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<!--EndFragment--><br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-59671372701677326422019-04-02T15:49:00.000-04:002019-04-02T15:49:21.013-04:00Equal Opportunity Peacekeeping with Sabrina Karim<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN">Before 2016, US foreign policy looked much different than it does today. Upon her confirmation as Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton moved US foreign policy towards advocating for women's, rights and equality. In a WAPPP seminar, Sabrina Karim argues that while these actions weren't necessarily a feminist foreign policy, they did put gender equality on the frontlines, not only as an issue of development, but as one of peace and security. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN">The UN’s Resolution 1325 “Women, Peace, and Security” also affirmed<span style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;"> the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts, peace negotiations, peace-building, peacekeeping, humanitarian response, and in post-conflict reconstruction. Moreover, the Resolution stresses the importance of women’s equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">The Resolution also applies to the UN’s peacekeeping missions. A peacekeeping mission is a negotiated settlement, where UN forces are deployed </span><span lang="EN">to provide security, and peacebuilding support post-conflict. The UN cites peacekeeping to be one of the most effective tools to help countries return from conflict to peace.<span style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;"> Peacekeepers are composed of civilians, soldiers, and police officers. It is other developing countries that provide the military, and these countries often profit from sending their soldiers because the UN pays more than what the soldiers would have made in their home countries.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">With her award-winning book <i>Equal Opportunity Peacekeeping; Women, Peace, and Security in a Post-Conflict States</i>, co-authored with Kyle Beardsley, Professor Karim finds that there are many gender inequalities that exist within peacekeeping missions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN">Question:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN">To begin her research Professor Karim asks “To what extent have peacekeeping missions achieved gender equality in operations and been vehicles for promoting gender equality in post-conflict countries?” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN">To answer that she looks at multiple ways in which gender inequality could take place in peacekeeping missions, specifically she asks:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN">Are there women included as peacekeepers? <o:p></o:p></span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN">Are the peacekeepers perpetrators of abuse? <o:p></o:p></span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN">Are there specific protections against wartime sexual violence? <o:p></o:p></span></i></li>
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<span lang="EN">To answer her first question, Professor Karim analyzes years of data from the UN’s peacekeeping missions. She finds that after passing Resolution 1325 the UN had set a goal of having 10% women for the military peacekeepers, and 20% for the police peacekeepers, by 2014, almost 15 years later, they had not met that goal. The highest proportion of women peacekeepers existed in missions in Cyprus and Nepal, and even these countries did not reach 8%. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN">Many scholars would agree that including women in peacekeeping missions would lead to better outcomes. The presence of female peacekeepers helps reduce conflict and confrontation. In addition, it helps women and children feel safer, improves access and support for local women, and makes peacekeepers more approachable to women. However, women who are included often face structural inequities that prevent them from doing their work as peacekeepers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN">Problem 1 <o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<i><span lang="EN">Women in peacekeeping missions have more informal work assigned to them, than do their male counterparts. <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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Women in peacekeeping missions are subject to implicit bias that often pushes them towards gendered work within peacekeeping, rather than providing security. All peacekeepers engage in community activities, not formally, but in addition to their work in providing security. However, women peacekeepers, including all female units are more likely to be recognized for facilitating community activities.<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span lang="EN">In addition, it is often up to the female peacekeepers to police behavior of male counterparts. This presents a whole set of barriers, as it is difficult for women to report inappropriate behavior because it might pose some issues to their future and careers as peacekeepers. Professor Karim argues that it is these unfair burdens and expectations upon female peacekeepers, which set them up for failure. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN">Problem 2<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<i><span lang="EN">Women Peacekeepers are often assigned ‘safer’ placements than their male counterparts.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN">Although women peacekeepers are supposed to provide security, they are also vulnerable to gendered violence, and require their own protections. As such, safety, security, and cultural factors are all taken into consideration before assigning women to placements. Women tend to be deployed to safer missions, specifically to countries with lower rates of sexual violence. Sabrina Karim argues that if employing women peacekeepers is supposed to decrease sexual violence, it is difficult to do that if they are not assigned to the appropriate missions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN">Peacekeepers are often perpetrators of sexual exploitation, abuse, and violence. <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN">Professor Karim notes that of the 50% of the women she interviewed who had engaged in transactional sex, 30% of them had engaged in transactional sex with a peacekeeper. She also notes that the presence of a peacekeeping mission led to an increase in an adolescent’s girl’s first time engagement in transactional sex. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN">Although the UN collects data on military and police peacekeepers, civilian peacekeepers are private citizens so the UN does not collect or release data about them specifically. It is also nearly impossible for local people to report sexual assault perpetrated by the peacekeepers to the UN. However, some reports note that civilian peacekeepers are more capable than either military of police perpetrators.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN">Establishing a Culture of Gender Equality:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN">Professor Karim provides many insights and recommendations to address the current issues present in peacekeeping:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Mission leadership: Choosing leaders who value gender equality may have a trickle-down effect. Professor Karim recommends using performance on gender equality as a prerequisite for leadership recruitment on peacekeeping missions. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Promotion and Demotion: Incentivize gender equality within peacekeeping missions. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Role Models and Mentors: Establish a network of role models for women in peacekeeping roles. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Training and Professionalism: Peacekeepers receive 2-3 hours of training on gender and sexual abuse and exploitation. Professor Karim recommends expanding these trainings and having the facilitator be someone serving in leadership. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
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Sara Armanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14617909827413476908noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-23792156906118241372018-03-06T12:37:00.003-05:002018-03-06T12:37:54.324-05:00Can Female Role Models Reduce the Gender Gap in Science? Evidence from Classroom Interventions in French High Schools with Clémentine Van EffenterreWomen are underrepresented among technical degree holders and STEM workers, and the gender segregation in these occupations has remained fairly consistent over time. How can we design interventions that might help fix the gender gap in science? WAPPP Postdoctoral Fellow Clémantine Van Effenterre presented the results of her study on the effects of STEM role models in the classroom.<br />
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<b>SETTING</b><br />
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This study focused on French high school students in year 10 and year 12. At the end of year 10, students choose to specialize in a science, social science, or humanities track, conditional on performance in these areas. At the end of year 12, students sit for their graduation exam, the <i>Baccalauréat</i>, which is the gateway to pursuing higher education. In order to gain entry to certain higher education tracks, year 12 students can opt to pursue highly selective prep classes (<i>classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles</i>), including in science.<br />
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Women are slightly overrepresented in year 10 science courses, but are underrepresented in science in year 11 and year 12, as well as in the selective science <i>classes préparatoires</i>.<br />
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<b>DESIGN</b><br />
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This study was a large-scale randomized experiment, with control groups and treatment groups of year 10 and year 12 students. Students in treatment groups had a one-hour session with a female STEM role model, either a “professional” (private employees in a STEM field) or a “researcher” (PhD candidates or post-doctoral students in the sciences). The role models presented on career prospects and wage rates in the sciences versus the humanities, the diversity of jobs in the sciences, and the underrepresentation of women in STEM jobs.<br />
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In addition to sharing their own experiences, the role models showed two videos. The first emphasized that men and women have the same “science potential” and that there are no biologically-determined sex differences with respect to science aptitude. The second video focused on how much workers in STEM occupations enjoy their workplace culture and work/life balance, as well as the shorter-than-expected duration of many science degree programs.<br />
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Dr. Van Effenterre and her colleagues surveyed students on the intensity of their stereotypical views of STEM jobs and women in science and their choice of school tracks, and collected data on their grades and higher education admission outcomes.<br />
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<b>RESULTS</b><br />
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Beliefs<br />
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Students in the treatment group, both male and female, changed their beliefs regarding careers in science and women in science. Female year 10 students were less likely to think that studying for a science degree takes a long time, that science jobs are dreary or solitary, or that it is hard to achieve work-life balance in STEM. With respect to women and science, the intervention emphasized underrepresentation and debunking biological essentialism. While students reduced their stereotypical beliefs in this area, they were more likely to think that “women like science less than men” and that “progress for women in science is slow.”<br />
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This is an interesting result: after the intervention, students are aware that men are disproportionately represented in science, but that the reason is not biologically determined. To make sense of this state of affairs, Dr. Van Effenterre and her colleagues hypothesize, students think that women must either not like science and not pursue it, or go into STEM fields and face discrimination or other obstacles to success in the field.<br />
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The effect sizes were larger for female students, but male students changed their beliefs too; the intervention may have been more salient for female students, but had an effect for all treated students.<br />
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School Tracks<br />
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This study revealed no change in track choices for year 10 students, but year 12 students in the treatment group significantly increased their likelihood of pursuing selective preparatory STEM programs: male students’ participation increased by 38% and female students’ by 20%, which are large increases over the low baseline for these selective programs.<br />
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Dr. Van Effenterre and her colleagues were initially puzzled by the lack of movement for year 10 students, but realized that student’s track choices are in some ways predetermined by past academic performance and other social factors, and are likely very hard to change with a small intervention. <br />
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<b>MECHANISMS</b><br />
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The role models may have impacted students’ beliefs and choices in a variety of ways: students may have been inspired to increase their effort to gain access to science jobs or may have experienced a boost in self-confidence or sense of fit in STEM roles after interacting with role models.<br />
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Dr. Van Effenterre and her colleagues examined the impact of the treatment on the grades the students obtained on the Baccalauréat, compared to students’ grades on other standardized exams. On average, there was no significant response to the treatment in terms of grades on the Baccalauréat for male or female students, and so the “increased effort” mechanism does not necessarily explain the observed effect.<br />
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Role models in the “professionals” category had a greater impact on both the decision to choose a science track and admittance to it compared to “researchers” for both male and female students. One limitation of this study was that the role models were only quasi-randomized, but it appears that the “professionals” may have been more relevant and compelling to students than the “researchers,” which presents additional questions about how to tailor the best type of role model for students to achieve the intended effect.<br />
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<b>CONCLUSION</b><br />
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Experiences with female STEM role models can be an effective policy tool to change beliefs and outcomes for male and female students, even in a limited, one-hour intervention. Dr. Van Effenterre emphasized that closing gender gaps today impacts the next generation: if they can see it, they can be it.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-34419599534429939202018-02-12T09:40:00.000-05:002018-02-12T09:40:04.221-05:00The Influence of Sexual Orientation and Race on Gender Prescriptive Stereotypes with Sa-kiera HudsonGender stereotypes are powerful forces that shape collective expectations and are socialized from an early age; these stereotypes are not just descriptive, but also prescriptive, stating what sorts of things men and women <i>should</i> and <i>should not</i> do based on their gender.<br />
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Rule congruity theory helps to explain why these prescriptive stereotypes are often a source of backlash: men and women are evaluated negatively when the role that they occupy is incongruent with the stereotypes of their gender. Negative evaluations can come from both descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes – women can spark descriptive backlash in leadership roles if there are few other women in leadership, and prescriptive backlash if the traits she displays violates one’s notions of how women should behave.<br />
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Rule congruity theory has sparked a great deal of research, but researchers generally haven’t interrogated who or what we mean when we say “men” or “women.” Research on role congruity theory and gender generally presumes straight, white, middle-class individuals, which gives reason to believe that prescriptive stereotypes of women don’t fully encompass lesbian women or women of color.<br />
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Taking an intersectional perspective may reveal that societal expectations are unique based on other identities. Importantly, less than 20% of studies on race include women, and less than 10% of studies on gender include race: there is an enormous amount of work to be done in intersectional psychology.<br />
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The first WAPPP Seminar of the semester featured Sa-kiera Hudson, PhD Candidate in Psychology at Harvard University and WAPPP Fellow, presenting research on intersectional identities and gender stereotypes. In particular, Hudson questions whether rule congruity theory is adequate to explain intersectional identities and, if not, how the theory should be modified.<br />
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<b>Study 1</b><br />
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Hudson’s first study incorporated sexual orientation as an additional identity. Existing literature suggests that in the realm of stereotypes, gay men and straight women are presumed to be similar, as are lesbian women and straight men, because of their similar sexual preferences.<br />
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In this study, individuals were given a list of 70 traits, some of which were more stereotypically masculine, feminine, or neutral (e.g. “assertive,” “warm and kind,” “honest”), and asked to rate whether that trait was desirable for straight and gay men and women, for men and women without a sexual orientation identifier, and for straight or gay people, without specifying gender.<br />
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Hudson hypothesized three expected patterns: stability in gender stereotypes, evidence of heterocentrism, and evidence of gender inversion.<br />
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1. Stability in gender stereotypes: Hudson’s findings were substantially the same as a similar study from 2002, which indicates that prescriptive gender stereotypes are relatively stable and haven’t changed much in the last 15 years.<br />
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2. Evidence of heterocentrism: There was no trait for which respondents’ rankings of desirable traits for a “man” deviated from those for a “straight man,” nor “woman” from “straight woman” or “person” from “straight person.” This finding suggests that when individuals are rating a person without a sexual orientation identifier, they presume straightness. While this isn’t surprising, it is useful: very few studies directly demonstrate heteronormativity in judgments like these.<br />
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3. Gender inversion: Hudson expected to see evidence of gender inversion, similarities between gay men and straight women and between lesbian women and straight men, in addition to differences between gay and straight men that mirror the differences between straight men and straight women. Of the 70 traits, there was evidence of gender inversion for 9: for example, it was less desirable for straight women to be assertive compared to straight men, but more desirable for lesbian women to be assertive compared to gay men.<br />
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An additional 12 traits showed evidence of gender asymmetry, where desirability ratings for men or women were the same regardless of sexual orientation, but diverged for the opposite gender. For example, cleanliness was equally desirable for gay and straight men, but for women, there was more pressure for straight women to be clean than for lesbian women. Thirty-four traits displayed evidence of sexual orientation asymmetry – there was gender differentiation for straight and gay men and women, but no difference between gay men and lesbian women. This finding suggests that gender might not matter as much as sexual orientation in terms of how we perceive gay men and lesbian women.<br />
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In addition, Hudson presented three other interesting wrinkles from this study:<br />
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<li>It is more desirable for lesbians to be assertive, competitive, and forceful compared to straight women, but there was no difference in trait desirability for business sense, career-oriented, or leadership ability, which suggests that it is acceptable for lesbian women to display dominant personality traits, but not in ways that might disturb the status quo of gender hierarchy.</li>
<li>The differences between straight and gay men are much larger than the differences between straight and lesbian women, which suggests that gay men may lose some of the status that comes with being male by virtue of their sexual orientation, while lesbian women don’t gain much status above that accorded to straight women.</li>
<li>Finally, Hudson’s study revealed some evidence that homosexuality is associated with low status – study respondents found it less desirable for gay men and lesbian women to be loyal, dependable, honest, or enthusiastic, traits that are typically considered neutral and positive. </li>
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<b>Study 2</b><br />
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Hudson’s second study replicated the first study’s methods using race rather than sexual orientation. There are different stereotypes of men and women of different races; for example, white women are stereotyped as submissive and feminine, black women as confident and aggressive. What studies do exist demonstrate that black and white women are treated differently with respect to normative traits – black women are not sanctioned as heavily for “aggressive leadership behaviors” as black men and white women. Something about the interaction of race and gender stereotypes specific to black women may mediate backlash.<br />
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Just as in the first study, Hudson found stability of gender stereotypes over time and evidence of eurocentrism: when respondents rated traits for a person without a race marker, their answers most closely matched those given for white individuals, suggesting that they viewed white as the default.<br />
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Hudson initially hypothesized that this study would yield evidence of gendered race theory, which posits that black individuals are masculinized. However, the results produced limited evidence for gendered race theory! For black men, it was less desirable to be masculine and more desirable to be feminine compared to the control male target. For black women, it was less desirable to be feminine and more desirable to be masculine compared to the control female target, suggesting that both black men and women are distanced from their gender stereotypes. For 38 traits, there was little gender differentiation among black targets but a significant amount for white targets, again suggesting that gender is not as important as race for stereotypes regarding men and women of color.<br />
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Both of these studies revealed that the prescriptive norms for gays and lesbians and for black men and women are mostly feminized norms, which suggests that status might play a role in how gender prescriptive stereotypes are generated for intersectional targets – these stereotypes are less about gender <i>per se</i> and more about relative status. The results of these studies underscore just how much intersectionality matters for contemporary research and the importance of updating existing theories accordingly.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-47195369315187266852017-12-30T14:25:00.002-05:002017-12-30T14:25:53.114-05:00Equal but Inequitable: Who Benefits from Gender-Neutral Tenure Clock Stopping Policies with Kelly BedardIn many highly educated professions, we see a pattern in which the number of female workers drops off over time, as does the share of women in the top earners cohort. Many of these professional tracks have an “up-or-out” quality, like making partner at a law firm or earning tenure at a university. This phenomenon is consistent with women entering lower-income fields or leaving them altogether: what mechanism might explain this effect, and what other implications might this pattern have? The final WAPPP seminar of the semester featured Kelly Bedard, Department Chair and Professor of Economics at the University of California, Santa Barbara, describing the results of a study on tenure clock-stopping policies in major university economics departments.<br />
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Over the last few decades, many universities have instituted “clock-stopping policies” for tenure. If a young academic has a child before receiving tenure, they may have an extra year before their tenure evaluation – rather than the usual six years to tenure, a new parent could have seven years of work evaluated, with their tenure clock stopped for one year. Having children is a productivity shock that, though these policies, is taken into account in gauging lifetime productivity.<br />
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These clock-stopping policies come in two-flavors: in early iterations, only women were eligible for clock-stopping; more recent policies are gender neutral, such that anyone who has a child can stop their clock. Some universities started with a female-only policy and then switched to gender-neutral. Professor Bedard’s research asks: what are the distributional consequences of these policies? How might these policies change the way people think about publishing and fertility strategies?<br />
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The simple story would be to consider two individuals, Person A and Person B, going up for tenure. Person A, a woman, has a child, stops her clock, and does no research for a year. Person B, a man, has a child, stops his clock, but does not change anything about his productivity during that year. Under a gender-neutral clock-stopping policy, Person A was not hurt in her tenure evaluation—her productivity was the same in the other years, even with a year of no research. This is precisely what the policy was designed to do, to ensure that faculty who take parental leave are not harmed in their tenure evaluations by their decision to do so. Person B, however, <i>benefited</i> from the policy, with an additional year to write papers that might factor into his tenure decision. Other faculty who did not have children and did not stop their clocks would be just as unaffected as Person A. This benefit to Person B, while the policy is net neutral for everyone else, is something of an odd result – this is not what the policy was designed to do.<br />
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If tenure decisions are imperfect – that is, not made strictly on the basis of the six-year timeline, excluding any time in which the clock was stopped – Person B is now pushing up the bar for tenure with his additional year of productivity. Person B will still be able to achieve tenure, but Person A and anyone who has not had a child will have a more difficult time getting over that threshold. This gender-neutral clock-stopping policy therefore has the possibility for some odd distributional consequences, which may be compounded by the additional productivity costs of being pregnant or departmental variation in teaching relief or other parental leave policies.<br />
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In addition to tenure decisions, these policies may also affect publishing decisions. Economists tend to focus on the top five journals, which each have a long lag in time to publication. These journals have a low likelihood of acceptance, but a high return if one’s article is published. Lower-ranked journals have a higher likelihood, but a lower return. Clock stopping adds an additional time period to this publishing game – with only one time period, a researcher might decide to send a manuscript to a lower-ranked journal for the added likelihood of publication. Without a top-five journal article, they may not receive tenure at their current institution, but likely will somewhere else. With two time periods, faculty are incentivized to send manuscripts first to the top-ranked journals; if the manuscript is rejected, it could always be sent to a lower-ranked journal in the second time period. If this strategy works, there will be obvious gains to those who stop their clocks versus those who don’t.<br />
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There are multiple avenues through which this effect could be occurring: clock-stopping could change an individual’s number of papers and where they are published and could affect tenure decisions and ultimately fertility decisions, which themselves may have publishing or productivity effects.<br />
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To test these possibilities, Professor Bedard assembled two unique datasets, one of the clock-stopping policies for each of the top 50 economics departments, as well as an exhaustive list of all assistant professors from 1980-2010. Using course catalogs, online CVs, and LinkedIn, she assembled a dataset of 1600 assistant professors who started their careers at a top 50 economics department who published at least two papers in eight years, along with their complete job histories and publication records.<br />
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The first considered metric was probability that an individual would get tenure at the school at which they started their career. In general, tenuring rates are fairly flat for both men and women, though the average rates are higher for men. What happens with the introduction of clock-stopping policies? Accounting for a series of controls, including flexible gender-specific time dummies and gender-specific university fixed effects, female-only clock-stopping policies have almost no effect on tenuring rates. However, gender-neutral clock-stopping policies have an enormous effect: with a gender-neutral clock-stopping policy, male tenure rates rise by 18 percentage points, and female tenure rates fall by 19 percentage points.<br />
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What is the mechanism for this effect? Fortunately, these clock-stopping policies do not impact the likelihood of getting tenure somewhere; instead, women seem to be moving and getting tenure at schools other than where they start. Using the complete job histories, Professor Bedard suggests that, conditional on getting tenure somewhere, once clock-stopping policies enter into place, fewer female faculty move to lower-ranked departments. While there is very little upward movement, this means that female faculty are more likely to move laterally, receiving tenure at a school ranked similarly to the one at which they started.<br />
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What are the effects of these policies on publishing? Over the first seven years of their careers, 40-50% of female faculty are not publishing in the top five journals, and those that do publish on average one article. Male faculty are somewhat more likely to publish in the top five journals, but still not to a significant degree. Comparing schools with clock-stopping policies (of either flavor) versus those without, over time female faculty at schools with clock-stopping experience, on average, a drop in publishing. By contrast, men experience a consistent increase in publishing success, such that men have, on average, half a publication more in a top 5 journal. Given that most people only publish one article in a top five journal, clock-stopping has a big effect for men with major impacts for publishing success.<br />
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The first version of Professor Bedard’s paper did not contain any analysis on fertility, but so many people wanted to know that she added an additional section. One major difficulty of studying effects on fertility is acquiring the data: most of the collected data is administrative, and few faculty report whether they have children on their CVs. Instead, Professor Bedard sent emails to each of the faculty members for which she had emails – around 85-90% of the dataset – asking whether the individual had children and, if so, in what year the children were born. The response rate (around 65%) was surprisingly high, but of course was entirely non-random; those who had left the profession were unlikely to respond, while those at higher-ranked schools were far more likely to respond. At schools with a gender-neutral clock-stopping policy, about 56% of pre-tenure faculty have a child, compared to 46% of those without a gender-neutral clock-stopping policy. Based on these data, it appears that clock-stopping does not change total fertility, but may change the timing of fertility.<br />
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These results for tenure, publishing, and fertility illuminate the side effects of clock-stopping policies and how they might eliminate burdens for women but confer additional benefits on men.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-78471210250965669532017-11-26T17:20:00.000-05:002017-11-26T17:20:23.300-05:00Betting the House: How Assets Influence Marriage Selection, Marriage Stability, and Child Investments with Corinne LowHow do we understand the marriage contract from an economic standpoint? Just as value is created, divided, and exchanged in the labor market, so it is on the marriage market. Last week’s WAPPP seminar featured Corinne Low, Assistant Professor of Business Economics and Public Policy at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, as she described the results of her study on marriage and homeownership as a lens into understanding what is valuable about the marriage contract, who reaps value from the marriage contract, and as policies change, how that value is changing over time.<br />
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While marriage was previously the universally adopted or aspired to family arrangement, this is no longer the case. There has been a recent increase in cohabitation and nonmarital fertility. However, this change does not necessarily mean that tastes or social values have changed; rather, Professor Low wonders, what in the marriage equation has changed to make people optimize their preferences differently? How has this changed been applied throughout society, where we see a tremendous amount of stratification in rates of marriage based on income, level of education, and race?<br />
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The key question in this line of inquiry is what made marriage valuable in the first place, and what made it retain value for some populations and lose value for others?<br />
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The marriage contract and nonmarital cohabitation have converged in recent years: the security of marriage has decreased with the advent of unilateral divorce, whereas nonmarital relationships have become more secure with the enforcement of paternity rights and responsibilities outside of marriage. However, there remains one key difference: only in marriage are assets divided up upon divorce. If one person in a cohabitating couple is making all of the mortgage payments, if that relationship breaks up, the other gets nothing. However, in a marriage contract that asset is divided or, very often, assigned to the mother (throughout the presentation, Professor Low referred to this effect in terms of husbands and wives; while this is not universally true, it is disproportionately the case and was used illustratively).<br />
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There is, therefore, an important distinction between income, which will be divided in both marital and nonmarital relationships in the form of child support, and asset-sharing, which is unique to the marriage contract.<br />
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Home-purchasing, according to Professor Low, may be an important way for husbands to commit to their wives. Because she will be guaranteed at least a share of that valuable asset if the relationship goes south, in her economic calculus it makes sense to invest in the human capital of the children, even if it reduces her own income. Similarly, because the house is at risk, it disincentivizes the husband from unilaterally seeking a divorce. “Betting the House” may be a way of securing the marriage contract.<br />
<br />
Investing in children has a cost – if a parent spends time investing in children, they have less time to invest in their own human capital. Generally mothers are the ones making these large investments – women tend to experience a decline in wages after having children, and economically speaking it makes sense for the lower-income partner to invest in children. While marriage used to provide some security for these investments, the marriage contract got more precarious as divorce became easier and more common. However, high-asset individuals can still offer some of this insurance, because those assets will be divided and can provide security for child human capital investments. As such, marriage is really only useful for people who have assets: the decision has less to do with a desire to invest in child human capital than with an ability to secure that investment with assets that can back the marriage contract.<br />
<br />
Now that paternity rights and responsibilities are enforced outside of marriage, nonmarital relationships are just as good as marital relationships for individuals without the assets to buy a house – only those with assets get the extra security for their marriage contract. As such, people without assets will flee from marriage, and those with assets will continue to get married. Professor Low and her colleagues set up a model in which nonmarital couples, upon splitting up, would either receive no asset transfer, 1/3 of what the asset transfer in a marital relationship would be, or 2/3 of the marital relationship asset transfer. Under each of these conditions, how do individuals’ preferences change with respect to marital and nonmarital relationships? With no nonmarital transfer, people without assets are divided between marital and nonmarital relationships. At the 1/3 transfer level, people without assets significantly increase their nonmarital fertility. At the 2/3 level, still less than what a spouse would get if a marriage split up, people without assets entirely abandon marriage. At each stage, people with assets choose marriage.<br />
<br />
This hypothetical bears out in the data: looking at a longitudinal data set of marriages and average home prices in the year of marriage, those who got married in an era of high housing prices were less able to purchase a home when they got married, and therefore they were less able to secure their child human capital investment. While there are certainly other explanations available, couples facing high housing prices at the time of their marriage tend to have fewer children, and their children are more likely to be held back in school. Assets provide commitment value that allows for greater specialization in the home and more optimal investments in children, which makes the marriage contract more valuable.<br />
<br />
This data demonstrates that legal changes (unilateral divorce and paternity acknowledgement) and concordant economic change can be responsible for stratification in marital decisions, rather than “tastes” or preferences. This finding has significant implications for policymakers, as the racial gap in assets and homeownership is much larger than the racial gap in income, in part because of redlining and mortgage discrimination practices. The gap in marriage among racial groups that has been attributed to tastes or values can actually be attributed to homeownership or the ability to get a mortgage. If we take marriage seriously as an economic contract, it is evident that policies that change the contracting environment have deep implications. This model provides a contracting explanation for why marriage might lead to greater child investment, without relying on arguments about preferences.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-33945537106211953302017-11-15T14:05:00.001-05:002017-11-15T14:05:38.277-05:00Gender Differences in Self and Other-Competition with Johanna Mollerstrom<div class="MsoNormal">
There is a well-established literature demonstrating that
women are less likely to choose to enter competitive settings, even when they are
just as able as their would-be competitors. While most of these experiments
have been conducted in a laboratory setting, different views toward competition
have obvious implications for life outside the lab, including education and
career trajectories. However, there has not been a similar investigation about
women’s attitudes toward self-competition – are women more or less willing to
compete against their own previous scores over time? Johanna Mollerstrom, Professor of Economics at Humboldt University, presented the results of three recent experiments on self- and
other-competition. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In existing studies, there are generally two mechanisms underlying
women’s differential interest in competition: women may be more risk-averse, or
they may be less (over-?) confident than men. With self-competition, risk
aversion and confidence take on slightly different valences: it’s still risky
to compete against yourself, but risk based on the uncertainty of who
you’ll be competing against is alleviated. Similarly, confidence may shift when individuals
only have to assess their own capacity to improve on previous rounds. There are
reasons to believe that self-competition may be different.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>STUDY ONE</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first study was a simple lab experiment designed to test
whether there is a gender difference in willingness to self-compete. Participants
were asked to add up as many sets of five two-digit numbers as possible in a
five-minute period. In the first round, participants were paid a piece rate of
$1 for every correct problem. In the second round, participants were either randomly
matched with another participant for a competition round or competed against
their own first-round score. The winner of the round (either defeating their
opponent or their first-round score) got $2 per correct problem. In the third
round, participants got a choice between the piece rate and competition, and
then were asked a few questions about their risk aversion and confidence. Half
of the participants in round three could choose to opt into another
other-competition round, while the other half competed against their own scores
in round two. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the other-competition condition, women were less willing
to compete than equally-able men, but the difference disappears when
controlling for risk aversion and confidence. This finding replicates many past
experiments. In the self-competition condition, we see much the same result;
risk aversion, in particular, seems to moderate any observed gender difference
in willingness to compete. However, this particular experiment had a smaller
sample size (N = 200), and a larger sample may indicate that there is no gender
difference in willingness to self-compete at all.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>STUDY TWO<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The second study recruited a larger sample on MTurk and
replicated the first study with a few modifications. The task was changed to a
captcha-style exercise rather than addition, and the rounds were shortened to
90 seconds to conform to other online experiments. In addition, the researchers
added two additional treatments, manipulating whether other-competitors were
matched with someone of the same or opposite sex, while holding constant that
they were matched with someone who answered the same number of questions
correctly in the first round. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The results of this experiment demonstrated that, again,
women were less willing to compete against others, but that the gender
difference was moderated by differences in confidence and risk aversion. This
experiment revealed a much more precise result for self-competition: there is
no significant gender difference in willing to self-compete, though confidence
and risk aversion still impact this result. It seems that confidence may play a
larger role in decision to compete against others than onself.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Interestingly, when matched with a competitor with the same
gender and ability level, women are still less willing to compete than men. In
other studies, researchers have found that female-only groups are more willing
to compete, but this was not the case in this experiment.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Further, when matched with a competitor of the opposite
gender and same ability level, the researchers did not observe a significant
gender difference in willingness to compete. It may be that this condition
provided better information – competitors did not have to think about how good
their competition was, which may have provided a confidence boost (or
alleviated some of the risk of competition) and eliminated the gender
difference. In both the self- and other-competition conditions, men were less
risk-averse than women. However, men were more confident in the
other-competition condition; in the self-competition condition, there was no
gender difference in confidence. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>STUDY THREE <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first two studies permitted participants to choose whether
they wanted to compete; in the third study, participants were forced to
compete, but were permitted to choose between self- and other-competition. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In treatment one, participants got the piece rate, then
either self-competition or other-competition in randomized order.
Finally, participants were able to choose between each of the three options. In
treatment two, the fourth round was set up so that participants had to compete,
but could chose self- or other-competition. In treatment three, participants
didn’t experience self-competition at all: they did two piece rate rounds, and
then could choose piece rate or other-competition. In treatment four,
participants complete two piece rate rounds, then self-competition, and then in
the final round could opt to compete against others. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In treatment one, a large proportion of participants (of
both genders!) chose the piece rate. The two competition types seem to be
roughly equally popular. In treatment two, when forced to compete,
self-competition was much more popular than other-competition. This finding
supports the hypothesis that individuals are better able to assess their own
capabilities and performance, and may be able to intuit that they can improve a
great deal in another round of self-competition. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Having experienced self-competition does not change women’s
propensity to choose other-competition. Interestingly, having experienced
self-competition makes men less likely to choose other-competition. While this
finding may have something to do with how men think about confidence, the
researchers did not have an ex ante hypothesis that would explain this result,
which is an interesting avenue for future research.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The researchers also sought to decompose confidence by
giving each participant a ratio of “how many tasks do you think you completed
correctly” over “how many tasks do you think others completed correctly.” In
other-competition, men were significantly overconfident and women were
significantly underconfident. However, in self-competition, there was no
significant gender difference in confidence. Men are more sure that they will
beat another person that they are sure that they will beat themselves, while
women are more confident in their ability to improve over time rather than beat
another person. Men and women are about equally good at assessing their own
performance, but women tend to overestimate (and men to underestimate) how well
others do. This finding may have relevance for giving feedback: to encourage women, it may be better to tell them “others are not as good as you think” than
“you’re better than you think.”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The researchers also examined causal attributions of
performance, asking participants on a 1-10 scale whether their performance was
“only due to factors I could control” to “only things I could not control.” In
self-competition, there was no gender difference in causal attribution –
unsurprisingly, all participants attributed self-competition more to factors
they could control. In the other-competition condition, women were slightly
more likely to think that the result was due to uncontrollable factors. This
effect was especially pronounced for participants who believed that they’d won
the round: women who believe that they’d won thought that their victory was
based on factors that they could not control, such as luck in who they were
matched to compete against. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In terms of future research directions, Professor Mollerstrom and
her colleagues are interested in whether, if participants know they will be competing
against themselves, they undercompete in round one. If so, this finding may
limit the contexts in which self-competition would be appropriate. Alternatively,
properly calibrated pre-set goals may be an effective middle ground between
self- and other-competition. There is a great deal of room to think about how
to use competitive institutions – not just other-competition—in more
gender-neutral ways that nevertheless preserve the performance-boosting
properties of competition.</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-43858726739570475672017-11-15T13:55:00.000-05:002017-11-15T13:55:10.356-05:00New Ways of Thinking About Gender and Leadership Effectiveness with Aparna Joshi<div class="MsoNormal">
The challenges that women face in entering and performing
effectively in leadership roles have been widely documented: recent research
indicates that the gender gap in pay and promotion is fourteen times greater
than gaps in performance. The disconnect between rewards and
performance is particularly large in high-prestige occupations. Aparna Joshi,
Arnold Family Professor of Management at Penn State University, presented two
studies on gender and leadership effectiveness, examining the issue from the perspective of
both men and women in leadership roles.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Professor Joshi’s research focuses on gender as a social
construction, rather than biological sex differences. Much of the work that has been done about sex
effects in senior management roles focuses on women, but men have gender too!
Focusing on sex also may obscure variability among women and men. Through this
lens, Professor Joshi investigates whether women are rewarded when they are
able to navigate through masculinized environments and whether men are punished
when they cannot.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Gender and Leadership
in the U.S. Congress<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Politics in the United States is a highly masculine context;
while women have been making gains in representation, women legislators make up
approximately 20% of the U.S. Congress. Professor Joshi’s first study focused
on when female politicians have been successful in bringing about change: to what extent are women legislators able to get bills passed? What
types of bills are they more or less successful at getting passed? Are women
legislators more successful when they highlight their distinctiveness, or when
they try to assimilate with the dominant group? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To test these questions, Professor Joshi utilized a
sixteen-year longitudinal data set of all Congressional bills introduced from 1993 to
2008, controlling for the president in office and the majority party in
Congress. In general, men were more effective than women in
getting bills passed (850 to 133) and introduced a larger number of bills
overall (approximately 12,000 of 70,000 were introduced by women). Professor
Joshi and her colleagues examined the content of these bills and coded them on
a range from more female-identified (education, healthcare) to more
male-identified (defense, fiscal policy).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The results of this analysis reveal that women legislators
are as good as men at getting neutral (neither male- nor female-identified)
bills passed. Men legislators were also
about as effective as women at getting female-identified bills; though many men
don’t think that they have the credibility to speak about “women’s issues,”
they nevertheless demonstrated legislative success. The most significant
finding from this sample was that women legislators were
particularly successful in getting male-identified bills passed. This finding indicates that for women in
male-dominated environments, distancing themselves from their distinctive
identity group may correlate with greater success.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There was also an interesting effect over the tenure of
female legislators that seems to indicate both a novelty premium for new
legislators and a credibility premium for more senior legislators in passing
female-identified bills. This finding presents an exciting avenue for future
research!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Gender and Leadership
among Fortune 500 CEOs<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Professor Joshi also presented a study to problematize the
“think manager think male” paradigm that tends to treat men as a monolithic
bloc rather than examining variability among men. This study focused on
masculinity as a source of variability for men: do different levels of
masculinity and femininity predict differential performance or pay among men? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To test this question, Professor Joshi and her colleagues
coded interview videos of male Fortune 500 CEOs for masculine and feminine
traits and compared these findings to their pay in the first year of being
CEO. Even within this highly select
sample of male CEOs, there was a range of femininity and masculinity that
further reinforces the idea that men are not all the same.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Among this sample, femininity did not have significant
effects on pay or performance.
Controlling for the firm’s prior performance, CEOs that were androgynous
were the highest performing in the sample. However, CEOs that were masculine or
androgynous were the highest paid in the sample. These findings indicate that
while greater masculinity doesn’t correlate with higher performance, it does
relate to higher pay. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
This study demonstrates, first, that there is gender
variability among men, even at the CEO level. Secondly, variations in
masculinity can have costs for men. Rather than affecting only women, the “think manager/think male” paradigm also has implications for men navigating masculinized working environments. Further research on gender and
leadership effectiveness should be sure to take into account gendered effects
on both men and women. <o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-32112908813597321112017-11-07T00:34:00.000-05:002017-11-07T00:34:30.804-05:00Intimate Violence and Sexual Violence in Chinese Societies with Jia Xue<div class="MsoNormal">
WAPPP Fellow Jia Xue, PhD Candidate in Social Welfare at the
University of Pennsylvania, presented her work on domestic violence, social
media, and mental health in the Chinese context. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To begin, she described two cases of domestic
violence in China: in the first, a Chinese woman, married at 26, was severely
beaten by her husband. She called the police at least eight times, but they
refused to intervene on the grounds that domestic violence was a “family
matter.” The woman ultimately died in 2008 after ten months of marriage because
of the abuse. In the other, an American woman married a Chinese man who was a
famous English teacher. When her husband began abusing her, she also reported
to the police who said that they could not assist her. She decided to post
pictures of her injuries on Weibo, often described as China’s Twitter. Within
an hour, her post had been retweeted 10,000 times and had received 4,000
comments. With the help of activists on social media, she launched a <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/evan-osnos/a-landmark-domestic-violence-case-in-china">landmark
case</a> against her husband and received compensation for the abuse.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While these two cases differ on many grounds, the use of
social media to speak out against abuse caught Jia’s eye. Weibo was established
in 2010 and grew quickly, so that by the time the American woman chose to speak
out in 2011, there was an established social media community to bring public
scrutiny to her case. Social media, according to Jia, has changed the public
from consumers of information to producers of information, telling the
government and the media what they think should be on the policy agenda. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The growth of social media in China has been astronomical. More
than half of all internet users are Chinese, and almost 90% of the Chinese
population owns a mobile phone. Weibo is the leading Chinese social network and
boasts more than 600 million users. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While many terms are used to describe domestic violence in
the United States – including intimate partner violence, violence against
women, and gender-based violence – domestic violence is the sole term used in
China, and refers specifically to physical harm perpetrated by current family
members. Domestic violence in the Chinese context does not include violence by
former partners or among same-sex couples. While there is no national
representative survey of domestic violence in China, the All-China Women’s
Federation estimates that one-third of married women have experienced domestic
violence in their lifetime.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Jia pointed out a twenty-year lag between the U.S. and China
in terms of domestic violence legislation. The U.S. first passed the Violence
Against Women Act in 1994. The Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in
1995 raised awareness about the issue of domestic violence, but the first
provincial regulation against it was not released until 2000, in Hunan. In
2001, domestic violence was mentioned for the first time in a national-level
law. Finally, after many years of advocacy, a national domestic violence law
was passed in 2015, to be implemented in March 2016. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Jia’s research is at the intersection of violence and social
media, using computational, big-data approaches to examine domestic violence. One
of her current projects is to explore (re)tweeting behavior of domestic
violence topics on Twitter. Using topic modeling to summarize and categorize
tweets, it became clear that organizational Twitter accounts discuss domestic
violence in the context of advocacy, while individual Twitter accounts are more
likely to discuss high-profile individual cases, like those about sports or
movie stars. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In a separate study, she examined the correlation between use of
traditional or contemporary media and prevalence rates of domestic violence. Survey
respondents who were more likely to read books experienced fewer incidents of
violence, while those who had higher levels of internet use reported more
domestic violence. Jia hypothesized that more time spent online reduces
communication between couples, which leads to marital tension, though the
reverse could be true: in relationships with a higher incidence of violence,
individuals may spend more time on the internet to be away from their spouse.
The seminar audience also pointed out that there could be a generational
effect: older survey respondents may be less likely to use the internet and
less likely to categorize certain behaviors as domestic violence. Alternatively,
there could be salience bias in this sample: survey respondents who spend more
time online and consume more international news may have learned more about the
issue of domestic violence and have a different view of the issue than those
who consume more traditional media sources. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Jia described one final study on using social media to
explore the impact of domestic violence on mental health in China. One
limitation of existing studies is that domestic violence is unpredictable; it
is difficult to measure mental health before and after an incident of domestic
violence. With Weibo, researchers have a corpus of posts from individuals over
a long period of time and can isolate messages before and after a given
incident to examine the impacts of domestic violence on depression, suicidal
ideation, and life satisfaction. Jia and
her colleagues amassed data from 1.6 million users, a
total of 5 billion posts. The researchers selected posts based on nine types of
domestic violence keywords and then manually screened posts to ensure that the
poster was describing a personal incident. Ultimately, 644 posts were
identified as real domestic violence cases. The next step was for the
researchers to identify whether the post described the poster’s first
experience of domestic violence, including if the post clearly stated that this
was the first experience (approximately 70% of posts) or that the poster had
never experienced domestic violence before (15%). Ultimately, the researchers
ended up with 232 unique Weibo posts. Finally, the researchers selected a group
of 232 Weibo users with no domestic violence experience and matched them to the
existing pool based on gender and location. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For the four weeks prior to and after the first-time
incident of domestic violence, the researchers used natural language processing
and behavioral features to create a prediction model of users’ levels of
depression, suicidal ideation, and life satisfaction. The two matched groups did not show any
significant differences in mental health before the domestic violence incidents,
and the non-victim group did not show any significant changes in mental health
over the eight-week period. For Weibo
users who experience intimate partner violence, 40% were more depressed after
the incident, but there were no significant impacts on suicidal ideation or
life satisfaction. Posters who experienced abuse from their parents
demonstrated lower life satisfaction after the first-time event. Those who were
exposed to domestic violence but were not themselves the victim had a higher
rate of suicidal ideation and lower life satisfaction. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
There are certain limitations of this study: researchers have
to rely on profile information, and there may be a selection bias for posters
who are willing to describe their experience on social media. However, this
study was able to show short-term mental health impacts after incidents of
domestic violence using innovative methods. These research findings may spur
additional research or policy interventions for prevention. <o:p></o:p></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-63047226705791915302017-10-31T10:20:00.000-04:002017-10-31T10:20:06.736-04:00Gender and Security Seminar Series: Does Integration Change Gender Attitudes? The Effect of Randomly Assigning Women to Traditionally Male Teams with Dr. Andreas KotsadamThe inaugural session of the Gender and Security Seminar series featured Dr. Andreas Kotsadam, Senior Researcher at the Frisch Centre in Oslo, Norway, as he presented the results of a recent study on gender attitudes and integration in the Norwegian military.<br />
<br />
Though women make up almost half of the paid labor force in most developed countries, occupational segregation persists. With only observational data, it is difficult to understand the causal link. It may be that workers in male-dominated field are more susceptible to gender stereotypes; alternatively, those who choose to work in male-dominated professions may subscribe to those stereotypes to begin with. Dr. Kotsadam’s paper helps to explicate this mechanism.<br />
<br />
Dr. Kotsadam and his colleagues joined forces with the Norwegian army, which remains very sex-segregated: women make up approximately 14% of the Norwegian military. While all men and women in Norway must register to be conscripted, only about 1/6 of a given cohort is selected for military service. New conscripts spend eight weeks in boot camp followed by ten months of service. Military officials have made it a priority to increase gender integration, including having mixed-gender squads living together and sharing rooms.<br />
<br />
In this study, new conscripts completed a survey on their first day of training before leaving for boot camp. Each person was randomly assigned to a squad: some squads included female soldiers, while others were entirely male. Squads live together, work closely together, and cannot leave the base during boot camp, creating an intense, cooperative setting in which to study gender attitudes. After eight weeks of boot camp, each person completed the survey again.<br />
<br />
The survey included three gender-related measures:<br />
<br />
1. Participants registered their level of agreement with the idea that same-gender teams perform better than mixed-gender teams. At baseline, 61% of men and 90% of women though that mixed-gender teams performed as well or better than same-gender teams.<br />
<br />
2. Participants registered their level of agreement with the idea that it is important that men and women share household work equally. At baseline, 67% of men and 87% of women agreed.<br />
<br />
3. As part of the military’s evaluation, participants were asked how well the phrase “I am feminine” described them. The researchers considered anything other than a complete disavowal of the feminine to be a measure of more egalitarian gender attitudes. All of the women and 56% of men agreed at least somewhat with the phrase “I am feminine.”<br />
<br />
In comparing the final survey to the baseline, soldiers who had at least one woman in their squad demonstrated a 14 percentage point increase in agreement that mixed-gender teams perform as well or better than single-gender teams. There was an 8 percentage point increase in the number of men who agreed that it is important to share household work. Finally, there was a statistically significant reduction in the number of men who completely disavowed being feminine.<br />
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These results demonstrate a clear, large effect on gender attitudes from working together with women in close settings. According to Dr. Kotsadam, the effect is quite general and seems to affect more or less everyone. These results also confirm the central hypothesis of contact theory, which states that if people are placed into close, cooperative settings with equal status and an enforcing authority, “good things happen.” However, the reverse effect also holds in this data: for men who were assigned to single-sex squads, their survey responses became <i>less</i> egalitarian over the course of boot camp.<br />
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What impact do these gender attitudes have on perceptions of leadership? When asked which sex makes the best leaders at various levels of command, all soldiers uniformly answered men, perhaps because of an exposure effect: all of the leaders that they had come into contact with were men. However, in an experimental setting involving a fictional candidate for squad leader, soldiers in mixed-gender squads did not discriminate at all between male and female candidates.<br />
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Many of the objections to military integration revolve around what happens to men when female soldiers are introduced: to they want to quit the military? Do they demonstrate lower morale, worse performance, or less satisfaction? Does unit cohesion or preparation suffer? In these results, the researchers did not find any differential attrition between same-gender and mixed-gender squads, and all soldiers were equally satisfied with their time in boot camp, whether or not they worked with female soldiers.<br />
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The results of this study indicate that gender attitudes are not fixed – it is possible to change them. Dr. Kotsadam cautioned that while this study has a great deal of internal validity, its external validity may be weaker, as the military is a very particular setting made up of very particular individuals. However, this study is a clear confirmation of contact theory and sets the stage for additional work in changing gender attitudes.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-44861117025130195252017-09-20T00:07:00.002-04:002017-09-20T00:07:07.321-04:00Discussing Diversity: How Emphasizing and Minimizing Intergroup Differences Affect Bias and Empowerment with Ashley MartinOver the last several years, there has been an increased push to talk about diversity, under the assumption that being blind to difference is counterproductive and that to leverage the benefits of diversity, we have to emphasize it. But is it really a good idea to talk about difference? This week’s WAPPP seminar featured Ashley Martin, PhD Candidate at Columbia Business School, as she presented a series of studies about awareness of difference and effects on inclusion and empowerment.<br />
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There is a great deal of literature about awareness of difference with respect to race: talking about difference reduces bias and increases engagement. However, there is almost no research on this awareness strategy for gender. The single study that had been published showed that being aware of or emphasizing gender differences was related to benevolent sexism. As a field, researchers have not systematically explored the types of differences attention to diversity emphasizes, whether they are similar for race and gender, and how this strategy affects outcomes for each group.<br />
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<b>Effects of awareness on attributions of difference</b><br />
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In the first study, the researchers asked 143 participants to list ten differences either between men and women or between black and white people. When asked to categorize these differences, it became clear that the listed racial differences were far more in the realm of opportunity and culture, and the gender differences were more related to personality and biology. The results of this initial study demonstrate that the types of differences that people generate when asked to consider race and gender are difference – for race, people focus on external differences related to opportunity, but for gender, people focus on internal differences. <br />
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The second study served to measure individuals’ beliefs about how one should approach difference. Study participants were rated on an awareness scale (how often they agreed with statements like “there are differences between groups that should be acknowledged” versus “there is no reason to categorize people based on their membership in a certain group”) and how often they attributed difference to external versus internal factors (opportunity/culture or personality/biology). Study participants who said that we should celebrate racial differences were more likely to attribute difference to opportunity; by contrast, those who said we should celebrate gender differences were more likely to attribute difference to biology. Recognizing external differences with respect to race is a positive development, as recognizing inequality is the first step in disrupting it. However, attributing gender differences to personality and biology has consequences for women.<br />
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In particular, the third study revealed that “personality differences” really boil down to stereotypes about gender and leadership; that men are agentic and assertive, whereas women are communal and warm. By telling people to recognize and embrace differences, we may be inadvertently telling them to embrace stereotypes that limit women’s opportunities. In this experiment, subjects were divided into three groups: the first read an article on why it is good to be aware of differences, the second an article on why it is good to be blind to differences, and the third were simply asked to think about diversity.<br />
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In the second stage of the study, participants were asked to rate whether differences between groups were due to opportunity or biology, to what extent a list of character traits regarding assertiveness versus communality were associated with each group, and a measure of “denial of inequality” – whether participants thought that discrimination was not a problem, and that on average all groups were treated equally.<br />
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On the race side, participants were more likely to attribute difference to opportunity rather than biology. However, those who reflected on the importance of acknowledging difference in the first stage were more likely to attribute differences to opportunity, while those who read the article deemphasizing difference made fewer opportunity attributions. On the gender side, participants endorsed biological reasons for difference in both the control and the “aware” condition. Only the group who read the article about being blind to difference attributed gender differences more to opportunity than to biology. Further analysis of these findings indicated that there was little connection between race and stereotyping. By contrast, all participants associated men with agency much more than women, though in the blind condition, this assessment decreased somewhat.<br />
Overall, this study reveals that being blind to difference is the baseline for racial differences, and that awareness pushes people to consider the antecedents of difference more closely. For gender, awareness of difference doesn’t change results from the status quo, but being blind to difference can improve assessments of women.<br />
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<b>Effects on bias</b><br />
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The next study was designed to test the effects of awareness ideology on bias. Two groups of male study participants were asked to read either the “aware of difference” article or the “blind to difference” article, and then were given a woman’s resume and asked to rate her leadership potential and assess whether they would hire her. In the awareness condition, participants rated the applicant lower on leadership potential than in the blindness condition, and were less likely to hire her. The decision to hire is mediated by the individual’s leadership evaluation, which is itself affected by stereotypes regarding agency and what makes a good leader that are emphasized through awareness of gender difference.<br />
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<b>Effects on women’s confidence</b><br />
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How do these assessments affect women at work? In the next study, 163 women were asked to make lists of differences or similarities between genders, and were then asked to what extent these qualities undermined their ability to be seen as a leader. When women listed differences, they perceived these differences as having a major negative effect on their leadership potential and listed more words related to agency and assertiveness than when they listed similarities.<br />
In the next phase of the study, 115 women read either the article about the benefits of being aware of difference, the benefits of being blind to difference, or a control article that was completely devoid of any gendered content. Next, the participants took a workplace confidence scale: in the control condition and in the awareness condition, women rated their workplace confidence above the midpoint. However, in the blindness condition, women rated themselves as significantly more competent.<br />
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Awareness of difference not only affects confidence, but also action-taking. The next study featured 126 female managers, who read either the aware or blind to differences article, then completed a self-assessment of their agency, the workplace confidence scale, and then participated in several risky decision tasks. In the awareness condition, the participants identified less with agency, rated themselves lower on workplace confidence, and took less action than in the blindness condition.<br />
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<b>Dyadic effects</b><br />
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In the final study, the researchers examined how men’s awareness beliefs affected male-female interactions. Study participants were divided into male-female pairs. In the first part of the study, the men read either the awareness or blindness article. Next, the pairs were asked to complete the bushfire survival task, requiring them to discuss and rank a list of survival items in order of importance. Independent raters were asked to evaluate the amount of time men versus women spent talking, the level of openness in the conversation, and the overall quality of the interaction. In the awareness condition, men spoke more than women and were less open. In the blindness condition, women spoke significantly more than men, men and women were equally open, and the interactions were overall higher in quality. Indeed, it seemed that men were “leaning out” so that women could lean in.<br />
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The results of these studies indicate that awareness of difference can be beneficial in attributing race to external differences, but that deemphasizing gender difference leads to better outcomes for women. This research demonstrates that diversity strategies shouldn’t be monolithic, as they may not work for all groups. Perhaps instead of discussing differences between men and women, discussing similarities may be an effective intervention to promote gender equality.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-4090242179943063312017-09-13T21:05:00.000-04:002017-09-13T21:05:56.425-04:00Should She Lead? Why Colleagues of Women, and Women Themselves, Often Think the Answer is No with Alison Wood BrooksShould women lead? We here at WAPPP strongly believe yes, but many people, including women themselves, often think the answer is no. This year’s first WAPPP seminar featured Alison Wood Brooks, Assistant Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School. Professor Brooks presented results from two published papers regarding perceptions of women in leadership roles and women’s experiences of those roles, as well as two earlier-stage projects.<br />
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We know women are underrepresented in leadership positions: less than 15% of executive officers are women, less than 11% of US firms with venture capital backing have been founded or led by women, and less than 5% of Fortune 500 CEOs are women. To understand why, Professor Brooks examines both demand-side factors (how people perceive and react to women in the workplace) and supply-side factors (how women themselves think and behave in the workplace, including individual differences in personality and preferences).<br />
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<b>The Demand Side: How Gender and Attractiveness Affect Entrepreneurial Pitch Success</b><br />
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On the demand side, Professor Brooks presented a study demonstrating that investors prefer entrepreneurial ventures pitched by attractive men. An analysis of the pitches given at the three largest entrepreneurial pitch competitions across the US over three years revealed that male entrepreneurs were 60% more likely than female entrepreneurs to win the competition and earn investor funding. In their study, Professor Brooks and her colleagues asked 521 people to watch two entrepreneurial pitch videos and choose one to invest in, switching whether the video was narrated by a male or a female voice. Sixty-eight percent of participants chose a venture pitched by a male voice, at a very high level of statistical significance, controlling for the pitch itself, the order the pitches were presented, participant gender, and participant age.<br />
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However, field data reveals that this effect is not just about gender: attractive male entrepreneurs were statistically significantly more likely to win pitch competitions than less-attractive male entrepreneurs. Interestingly, in the field data, there was no statistically significant impact of attractiveness on female entrepreneurial success. In the next stage of the study, to understand whether attractive people might just be better at pitching, the researchers asked 194 people to watch one pitch video and rate it. The researchers varied whether participants heard a male or female voice, and whether the photo of the narrator they were shown was more or less attractive. Participants were asked how likely they were to invest in the venture and to what extent the pitch was persuasive, fact-based, and logical. Again, attractive male entrepreneurs were significantly more likely to secure investment than less-attractive men, while there was no statistically significant difference for women. However, male-narrated pitches were rated as more persuasive, fact-based, and logical. These findings indicate that male entrepreneurs – especially attractive ones—are more likely to receive investor funding than are female entrepreneurs based on their gender and physical attractiveness rather than the content of their ideas.<br />
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<b>Extending the Analysis: Data from Kickstarter</b><br />
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Professor Brooks embarked on a new project to replicate and extend this study using big data from Kickstarter.com, a large crowdfunding platform. Professor Brooks and her colleagues took a sample of 1,249 projects from Kickstarter that included a picture of a single entrepreneur whose gender could easily be identified. Ten independent judges rated the age and attractiveness of the entrepreneurs in every photo. The researchers used the number of investors as a measure of pitch success and included other available information (including number of days left in the campaign) as control variables. Analysis of the Kickstarter data replicates Professor Brooks’ earlier findings. Male entrepreneurs had about twice as many investors compared to female investors, and for male investors (but not female investors) attractiveness garnered more investors.<br />
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Professor Brooks also included two follow-up experiments. The first was designed to test the relationship between entrepreneur gender, entrepreneur attractiveness, and investor gender. The results reveal that male investors are more likely to fund good-looking male and female entrepreneurs, but that female investors are more likely to fund attractive male entrepreneurs and less likely to fund attractive female entrepreneurs. The second experiment was to test to what extend these results are about threat. Are women threatened by attractive women? Are men threatened by successful men? The data bears out this initial hypothesis: women are less likely than men to invest in ventures run by attractive women, but are more likely than men to invest in ventures run by successful men.<br />
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<b>The Supply Side: How Do Women Themselves View Professional Advancement?</b><br />
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On the supply side, Professor Brooks presented a study indicating that compared to men, women view professional advancement as equally attainable, but less desirable. When asked to list their core goals in life, female participants listed more goals than men overall, but a smaller proportion of women’s goals were related to achieving power at work. These findings hold when people make their own lists of goals, when they select goals from a pre-determined list, and when they reject goals from a pre-determined list. When asked to what extent they expect certain positive or negative outcomes resulting from a promotion to a higher-power position at work, men and women report equivalent levels of positive reactions to the promotion, but women report stronger negative reactions to the promotion. Men and women rate the promotion as equally attainable, but women rate the promotion as less desirable and, compared to men, are less likely to accept the position. These results are consistent across high-level executives, mid-level managers, recent MBA alumni, and undergraduate students.<br />
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Importantly, these findings are descriptive, not prescriptive. It may be that men and women are correctly predicting the unique experiences they will each face in high-power positions; alternatively, women may be overestimating the negative consequences associated with power, men may be underestimating the negative consequences associated with power, or both.<br />
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<b>New Areas for Research: Gender, Power, Laughter, and Happiness</b><br />
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In a new project, Professor Brooks is working to investigate the relationships between gender, power, laughter, and happiness. Two sources of data provide converging evidence that men and women might use laughter differently: the U.S. Gallup Poll 2013 and speed-dating conversations. In the Gallup poll, women report laughing and smiling more than men in their daily lives, but also report experiencing more negative emotions (worry, sadness, anger, stress). In the speed dating context, women are more likely to laugh during their dates, regardless of how funny they find their partner. However, female laughter is a worse indicator of interest in a second date compared to male laughter. Said differently, women laugh more often, irrespective of humor, but not in a way that is necessarily connected to interest. As there has been little research done on the supply-side dimension of women’s unique experiences, particularly in leadership roles, this is an area ripe for exploration.<br />
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<b>For more on Professor Brooks’ research, check out our Gender Action Portal:</b><br />
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<a href="http://gap.hks.harvard.edu/investors-prefer-entrepreneurial-ventures-pitched-attractive-men">http://gap.hks.harvard.edu/investors-prefer-entrepreneurial-ventures-pitched-attractive-men</a><br />
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<a href="http://gap.hks.harvard.edu/compared-men-women-view-professional-advancement-equally-attainable-less-desirable">http://gap.hks.harvard.edu/compared-men-women-view-professional-advancement-equally-attainable-less-desirable</a>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-76475125496005067422017-05-04T13:50:00.001-04:002017-05-04T13:50:28.912-04:00Self-Affirmation as Strategy for Reducing Gender Effects on Negotiation with Chiara TrombiniWomen face serious obstacles on the road to success. Despite reporting the same career aspirations and ambitions, women are underrepresented at the top and tend to be less satisfied with their careers than men. Women make up 44% of S&P 500 companies, but only 25% of corporate boards and only 6% of CEOs. Gender discrimination accounts for a large part of this discrepancy: certain attributes that are considered essential for career advancement are stereotypically male, and professional women face backlash when they display these traits. <br />
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How do men react to the prospect of working with agentic women in male-dominated environments, and how can we make men more willing to work with agentic women? The final WAPPP seminar of the year figured Chiara Trombini, AY’17 WAPPP Fellow, as she presented three studies on this line of research.<br />
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Why focus on men evaluating agentic women in male-dominated environments? Gender differences are more likely to emerge in male-dominated environments, and women are evaluated more harshly when they occupy male-dominated roles, exhibit stereotypically male attributes, or are evaluated by men. In particular, women face a competence-likability double bind: either they are well-liked but considered incompetent, or are competent but socially unattractive and therefore less worthy of hiring or promotion.<br />
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Is there a way to overcome the “threat” posed by agentic women? Chiara argues that self-affirmation is one way to reduce backlash and promote gender equality. Self-affirmation is when individuals reflect on values that are personally relevant to them. Self-affirming individuals are less likely to experience distress, less likely to react defensively, and are more likely to be objective in their decisions and less likely to rely on stereotypes. From a cognitive perspective, self-affirmation is effective at reducing the effects of prejudice and stereotypes, makes individuals more likely to accept threatening information and modify their behavior in response to threat, and increases concession-making and openness to compromise in negotiations.<br />
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How can self-affirmation reduce backlash? The mechanism lies in men’s emotional response to agentic women. Men dominate the current gender system and are sensitive and responsive to threats to their masculinity. When gender status is uncertain or challenged, men experience anxiety and react aggressively. There is some evidence that self-affirmation reduces cortisol levels and may be able to reduce stress and anxiety responses in these situations.<br />
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Chiara hypothesized that self-affirmation would make individuals less likely to rely on stereotypes and prejudices, so men who practiced self-affirmation would be more willing to work with agentic women and would feel less anxious at the prospect of doing so. She presented three studies testing these hypotheses on self-affirmation and gendered backlash.<br />
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<b>Study 1</b><br />
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In the first study, evaluators were asked to rank 11 values (sense of humor, politics, religion, creativity, etc.) in order of personal importance. In the self-affirmation condition, evaluators were asked to write why their most important value was important to them. In the control condition, evaluators were asked to write why their least important value could be important to someone else. Then, evaluators watched a job interview and evaluated an internal candidate for job placement. The measured variable was willingness to work with the candidate. As hypothesized, self-affirmation increased male evaluators’ willingness to work with agentic women.<br />
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<b>Study 2</b><br />
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Study 2 followed the same design as Study 1, but included measures for negative trait perception (whether the evaluator found the candidate to be arrogant, greedy, etc.), level of anxiety, and neutral feelings. The findings from Study 2 replicated Study 1: evaluators were less willing to work with women than men overall, but self-affirmation increased general willingness to work with candidates and particularly increased men’s willingness to work with women. In addition, men in the self-affirmation condition had lower rates of negative trait perception and lower anxiety.<br />
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<b>Study 3</b><br />
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Study 3 set out to evaluate whether anxiety decreases willingness to work with a job candidate. Participants were asked to evaluate a job candidate based on their behavior in a job interview after being exposed to a music clip designed to induce feelings of anxiety or feelings of calm – in this case, either the theme from <i>Psycho</i> or “Weightless” by Maroni Union. Evaluators then rated their current mood in terms of anxiety or calmness. In general, male evaluators were more willing to work with male candidates, and female evaluators were more willing to work with female candidates. Participants in the high anxiety condition were less willing to work with candidate across the board. In addition, male evaluators in the high anxiety condition were less willing to work with agentic women.<br />
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These studies lend a cognitive and affective perspective to examining the roots of gender discrimination in hiring. It appears that perception of negative traits and feelings of anxiety are wrapped up in hiring discrimination. Self-affirmation is a low-cost, powerful affirmation that can increase men’s willingness to work with women in male-dominated environments, which could ultimately reduce gender gaps in professional settings. Organizations could institute self-affirmation practices before hiring, promotion, and performance review decisions in order to alleviate gender discrimination and ensure that they are benefitting from the entirety of the hiring pool.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4781883626284108757.post-44138607540152417622017-04-25T00:12:00.000-04:002017-04-25T00:12:02.446-04:00Fathers and Work Family Balance: Mix Methods for Understanding Fatherhood Involvement and Enrichment Experiences with Marc Grau-GrauFatherhood is in transition: the traditional “distant breadwinner” model of fatherhood has eroded to a more nurturing role for fathers. Fathers are doing more care work, and work-family balance is increasingly a priority for men. At the same time, work-life conflict is increasing, leading to high levels of stress, absenteeism, and burnout, along with a lower fertility rate. In Europe, 21% of workers report that they “always” or “almost always” feel too tired when they get home from work to spend time with their families. However, few studies focus on understanding men and work-family balance.<br />
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Much of the research on work-family conflict has focused on mothers. We know that involved fathers are good for kids and for gender equality, but less about how these dual roles affect fathers and their work and family lives. This week’s WAPPP seminar featured Marc Grau-Grau, WAPPP Fellow 2016-2017. Marc presented three studies from his thesis on Catalonian fathers to better understand how patterns of paternal involvement may give some clues on how to promote gender equality in parenting.<br />
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<b>Study 1: Understanding the predictors of fatherhood involvement </b><br />
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Fatherhood involvement is positive for children and gender equality, but also for fathers and their jobs. The aim of the first study was to explore the care work contributions of Catalan working fathers with children under 10 to understand how patterns of fatherhood involvement differ based on metrics like education level, income, age, number of paid working hours, occupation, and partner’s occupation. The motivating research question is: Why are some working fathers more involved than others?<br />
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Marc hypothesized that well-educated fathers are more likely to devote more time to their children, especially in “developmental care." As the number of paid working hours increase, fatherhood involvement is expected to decrease. Finally, men in managerial occupations are more likely to devote less time to their children.<br />
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A sample of 471 fathers and their partners were asked to complete time-use diaries recording what primary and secondary activities they were engaged in throughout the day in ten-minute intervals. Childcare was operationalized into basic care (feeding, dressing, bathing), developmental care (teaching, helping, playing, reading), and secondary childcare. On average, fathers did 59 minutes of basic care, compared to 126 for mothers. Fathers also completed 33 minutes of developmental care, compared to 37 minutes for mothers.<br />
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As predicted, fathers with higher levels of education spend more time with their children. There is no clear trend between fathers’ income and childcare. Fathers in elementary occupations and in high-management occupations spend the highest proportion of quality time with their children. Younger fathers spend most time with children, but this effect could be because their children are younger or because these fathers might be unemployed. As expected, more hours spent at paid work means less time spent on care work. Finally, having an adult dependent is associated with a significant decrease in fatherhood involvement – by 29 minutes – all else being equal.<br />
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<b>Study 2: Understanding the positive side (work-family enrichment)</b><br />
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Most research on work and family is based on a conflict perspective, under the assumption that time, energy, and attention are finite and that work-family conflict is a zero-sum game. However, an expansion approach may be more appropriate: high performance skills in one role may spill over into one’s other roles. This expansion of skills into other roles is known as work-family enrichment. Do the rewards and benefits perceived by working fathers in one role spill into the other role<br />
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In this study, Marc interviewed father and their partners. Seven of 20 fathers chose to do their interviews in the workplace, including 5 of 6 managers. The fathers described skills that they perceived that they learn at work that help them at home, including organization and time management, technical skills, people management, new perspectives, and cultural capital. In the opposite direction, fathers described skills that they perceived that they learn at home that help them at work, including sensitivity, patience, responsibility, people management, support, values, and long-term project management.<br />
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Fathers in high-level occupations described their work-family enrichment in terms of people management and cultural capital; fathers in lower-level occupations reported enrichment in organization and technical skills. This study reveals that enrichment is not the opposite of conflict and that soft skills are mainly developed at home.<br />
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<b>Study 3: Understanding potential barriers to fatherhood involvement</b><br />
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What happens with these involved fathers? Having a child has an impact on fathers’ professional careers, but not the same effect as for women: previous research has established a motherhood penalty as compared to a fatherhood premium for having children. That said, fathers can receive backlash in terms of being a “poor worker” (that is, not committed 24/7 to their jobs) or a femininity stigma.<br />
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This study employed qualitative interviews on a different sample of fathers to examine barriers to fatherhood involvement. Marc identified five key barriers in particular:<br />
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<li>Barrier 1: Poor organizational support. Though organizational policies for fathers exist, there is little institutional support for them, and fathers are rarely explicitly informed of potential options like flextime.</li>
<li>Barrier 2: Anticipation of negative career consequences due to transgressing the “ideal worker” norm.</li>
<li>Barrier 3: Personal obstacles to fatherhood involvement based on gender norms and self-image; many fathers reported barriers to fatherhood involvement linked to their masculine identity.</li>
<li>Barrier 4: Many fathers perceive that being a working father is not a legitimate reason to ask for more flexibility; they may ask for accommodations when completing an MBA or starting a new business, but not for spending time with their children.</li>
<li>Barrier 5: Money – Fathers perceive that using flex options is associated with wage reductions in a sort of “fatherhood penalty.”</li>
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<b>Future potential work</b><br />
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There are a great number of possible research projects within fatherhood involvement. There is certainly more to do on the “sociology of thriving” and how fatherhood involvement can benefit organizations. On the flipside, more evidence on stigmas, barriers, and costs of fatherhood involvement could illuminate obstacles to gender equality in parenting. We look forward to hearing more!Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1